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Mastering Practical Criticism - Compiled Notes note: for the bullets: (-) dashes refer to general notes, (*)

asterisks are for highlights/important notes (i.e. effects on text, etc.) "nothing in good literature is ever random" PRACTICAL CRITICISM What is it? It is an exercise in which you analyze closely a previously unseen piece of writing without any additional information about the material or the writer. Technical aspects: Candidates need to look at the HOW and WHAT of the piece. HOW - The style of the piece, the way in which the writer WHAT - The content of a poem or passage writes

Informed Personal Response Practical Criticism invites the reader to engage with the text at a personal level and still have an informed response. This 'informed' opinion is created from a blend of knowledge, understanding and experience, it is for response but one that operates within a context of objective information gained from outside yourself. A 'DO' List for reading and analysis: It is essential that we approach it calmly because panic clouds our thinking. Read the Question CAREFULLY Read EVERY word of the question at least twice and do a focusing exercise on it before you begin to read the text set for analysis. - Focusing involves reading the question closely and then homing in on KEY WORDS which serves to focus your mind on the demands of the task. Read the text carefully - You must read the piece SEVERAL TIMES - Remember that the quality of your writing is dependent on the quality of your reading. - Try to consider the significance of every word in the text Make connections and organize relevant ideas around key words - Once you have spotted an idea, you can start to track it elsewhere in the

text. Are there other clues that suggest a similar theme? A 'DO' List for Writing: Be Clear - For communication to be effective, it has to be clear. There are several possible reasons why candidates fail to achieve this. - The candidates thinking is not clear - What you write down on paper is the result of whats going on in your head. - Perhaps you have not read the piece carefully enough. - Lack of understanding may lead to confusion in thinking or an inability to make connections and develop themes - The candidate's expression is not clear - Always use the most APPROPRIATE and ACCURATE word - The candidate's organisation is poor - Structure - build your arguments carefully and logically - Direction - Relates to where your argument is going - Where are you aiming to get to by the end of your essay? Does the essay lead the examiner along a path that he or she can follow, to a definite destination? Put more simply: "what are you trying to say?" - It is important to achieve a sense of movement in your writing. The examiner needs to feel that he/she has gone somewhere with you - In essence, you are metaphorically taking the examiner by the and saying: 'come with me. I'm going to show you what i think and feel about this - Be formal - A wide vocabulary is useful - Provide Evidence - Remember that every point that you make about a text needs to be supported with evidence from it - You need a very close textural reference for your claims. - Expect to provide evidence for EACH ONE of those claims - Types of evidence - Close reference - Explain what is happening in the text - Quotation - Directly quote the exact words used by the author. - Both methods are acceptable but it is wise to aim for a generous

sprinkling of embedded quotation throughout you essay. - Think about an order - Allow yourself time to consider the significance of the material that you have collected - Think about ways in which you can combine and order you observations in RELATION to the question. - This is where the focusing exercise can be very helpful - You will see that you material will tend to fall into 'natural patterns'. Think carefully about the direction of you argument and consider the ways in which you responses an be sued to support and develop it. - Draw up a provisional plan - This should contain: - The MAIN stages of your essay and a conditional 'WORKING' conclusion - KEY POINTS related to the question in each main stage - Highlighted RELEVANT QUOTATIONS AMBIGUITY AND MEANING Ambiguity - Means: 'a double meaning which is either deliberate or caused by the inexactness of an expression' and 'an expression that can be interpreted in more than one way.' Multiple Meanings - This causes the challenge in the study of poetry because we have to determine the meaning of a piece. - Most people when questioned derive different meanings while still operating in a mutually agreed area of overall meaning. - The answer to how we are able to establish meaning from vagueness is through looking at CONTEXT Tools of Analysis - features of text TECHNIQUES FOR PRACTICAL CRITICISM Intention - The study of a text discloses similar messages in tone, imagery, language, and all its various elements. - A safe theory of work is 'if it's there, it's there for a purpose' - What is then required is that you DISCUSS the REASON for the imagery and the EFFECT it has on the text. - It is important to remember that our focus has to be on the WHOLE

text The 4 Cs when dealing with a new analysis Calm Confidence Close Reading Concentration

DON'T PANIC!!! Tools for analysis - features of text: Meaning (subject): - Subject of the piece - Ask the simple question 'What is it about' - Focus solely on the content - Do not underestimate this element of analysis. Before dealing with other aspects, a solid 'layer' of basic comprehension must be established - Concentrate on what the writer is saying. this stage of the process will inevitably entail a close study of the way in which the piece is structured. 'What are the connections between the stanzas, paragraphs or speeches? Is there an argument, exposition or emotional developing?' - This will build the FRAMEWORK of your analysis which will guide and direct it to other elements. Motif - It is an event or image that occurs frequently - Should not be confused with the theme Form and Structure - How its written - Writers choose the form to suit the text - Straightforward in poetry - Rhythm - Pauses - Commas, periods, emjambments greatly affect the flow - Length of stanza - Metre - Stressed and unstressed syllables - Type of verse Tone - It is helpful to read the poem or passage several times and decide

which tone you would use to read it aloud - Changing the tone can entirely change the meaning - 'the medium IS the message' - Your tone of voice reveals your attitude - It is ESSENTIAL to any consideration of meaning or context Figurative Language: - Allegory - Is a narrative in which surface events represent abstract ideas - Conceit - An elaborate, improbable and extended metaphor that compares two very different things - Diction - Refers to the selection and organization of words, the language used by the writer * can help establish attitude, temperament, social class and context - Imagery - Visual: Sight - Aural: Hearing - Tactile: touch/feel - Olfactory: smell - Gustorial: taste - Mixed imagery: Falls into more than one category * Makes the language more intense, precise and direct - Simile - Comparing one thing to another by using words such as 'like' or 'as' *Ask the question "how" does the subject resemble the object - Metaphor - Compare one thing to another so strongly that the writer says one thing is another - A figurative words or a group of words actually replace the literal meaning * have the effect of making us look at the world in a different way - the way the writer sees it * Essential to ask the question why the writer used this imagery - Personification - Characteristics that are normally associated with the human beings are attributed to abstract ideas or objects * Personification gines the writer scope; There si more you can do with a person than an idea or object

- Reification - Similar to personification in that the writer employs something tangible to present either a person or an abstract idea but instead of using a person, the writer uses an object/thing Hyperbole - Use of exaggeration or overstatement to emphasize the importance or insignificance of something * The effects can be: - Genuine - Comic - Ironic - Symbolism -A powerful and effective device, it is the use of an object to stand for something else * It is important to remember that a symbol is Culture Specific Conventions - This refers to customary practices in literature; what is usually to do in certain literary circumstances i.e. there are conventions in writing a sonnet: the number of lines, etc * It is essential to practical criticism that we are able to recognize and comment in a meaningful way on the ways texts DEVIATE form these and suggesting reasons why. Sound - Rhyme - It plays a significant role in the nature of a poem - A key component in determining the musical component of a verse - Rhyme refers to the likeness between sounds - End Rhyme - refers to a rhyme that occurs at the end of a line - it is essential to think about the effects that different types of rhyme on the writing both in terms of the that line and the whole piece - Depending on the type of rhyme, it can make the poem feel complete or that there is something lacking (the effect of half rhymes and eye rhymes) - Internal Rhyme - A rhyme that occurs within a line and verse * enhances the pace at which the poem mo * emphasizes the words in that rhyme Types of Rhyme

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- Masculine rhyme - Refers to rhyme in which the last syllable of the rhyme is stressed * This pattern is more emphatic and conspicuous and it highlights the rhymed words - Feminine rhyme - Refers to rhyme in which the last syllable is unstressed * The effect that is created suggests a certain 'fading' or 'vanishing'. The end is less certain, more vague and unknown. It generally gives the text a gentler 'wispier' feel * This rhyme tends to add softness to tone - Half Rhyme - Also known as para-rhyme - It is in a way incomplete or imperfect. the pairs words rhyme up to a point but not entirely and this can create a certain discomfort. - The characteristic of this rhyme is the matching of consonants with the dissimilarity of vowels i.e. escaped/scooped, groined/groaned *The effect of half rhymes is that they give a feeling of unease to the piece and makes us feel perhaps a little troubled. Half rhymes also gives the words a certain 'looseness' different from the 'tightness' and unity that comes form a full rhyme - Eye rhyme - This happens when the words rhyme visually but sound different when said i.e. love/prove * It has the effect of an imperfect rhyme and the feeling is one of discord and disruption - Alliteration - Is the name given to the repetition of consonant sounds (not letters) * a distinction should be made between letters and sounds; alliteration exists even when the consonants are different provided they sound alike i.e. 'feathered phenomenon' - Alliterated words are linked together by sound just like rhymed words are linked my rhyme * Alliteration tends to emphasize the words to which it is applied. These words are highlighted to draw the attention of the reader. **While some exponents on practical criticism reject the idea of analyzing the sounds of individual letters, it seems to be a natural thing to do when considering such features of text as sound. Common sense suggest that the sound of individual letters can greatly enhance the overall effect of the text on

the reader, particularly if the text is poetry. - Consonants - Mainly fall into 2 categories - Hard: b, c, d, g, k, p, q, s, t, x, z - Soft: c, f, g, h, j, l, m, n, ph, s, sh, z - Some appear in both lists because they have 2 sounds i.e. the sound of 'c' in 'car' and 'receive' or the sound of 's' in 'sin' and 'slowly' ('sin' sounds harsher than the smooth effect of the 's' in 'slowly' this shows how the surrounding letters can affect the sound of the consonant) * The sound it will take is dependent on its context - Context refers to: - The other letters around them in the same word - The other words around them in the same text - The meaning * The sound of a letter must never be looked at in isolation, always look at both the connotative and denotative meanings of the word. * The consonant 'h' is an aspirate and it gives an airy,'breathy' feel to the word and makes the piece feel somewhat hushed. - Vowels - Also fall into two groups - Short i.e. car, dog, red, sin, etc. * Short vowel sounds tend to speed up the pace of writing * They can give the texts a harsher, brusquer feeling than long vowels; they are firmer and heavier and can, depending on the context, create emphasis. -Long i.e. 'a' in cape, 'e' in reed, etc * Long vowel sounds slow down a piece * They can give a ext a softer, gentler feeling than short vowels, for the same reason, they are more fluid and lighter and can, depending on the context, create a more thoughtful mood. - Assonance - like alliteration but for vowel sounds instead of consonant sounds i.e. child, silence, time * it can emphasize and unify relevant words in a text - Consonance - it is related to assonance but refers to the repetition of the same consonant sound on either side of two different vowels in two words i.e. 'grieve' and 'grove' * is also given the term 'half rhyme' when its a substitute for a rhyme and may suggest a certain lack of harmony

Onomatopoeia - This device occurs when a writer uses a word that sounds like the noise it describes * It brings sound to the writing in a very real way so the reader can hear it as is instead of having to imagine the sound. Repetition and accumulation - it is a simple device that occurs when a word or synonym, phrase or line is repeated * the most obvious effect is emphasis - accumulation is similar to repetition except that it uses a variety of examples to prove a point i.e. an hundred years, two hundred years, thirty thousand years Dialogue Creates character * the language that the character uses can tell us more about him/her i.e. the characters that use standard english language suggests that they are conformist or educated. - Dialect vs. accent Dialect: - Grammar: when a character uses non-standard grammar and the like i.e. "I ain't" vs. "I haven't" - Vocabulary: the words used by the character which is influenced by their dialect i.e. when we use words like 'lol' or 'omg' etc Accent - refers to the way the words are pronounced i.e. pronouncing 'bath' with an 'a' like that of 'cap' vs that of 'pardon' - accents can also help us tell where the character is coming from geographically and culturally * accent carries with it associations of social class and status. The issues around accents tend to be those of power, status, conformity and naturalness * accents are used to draw the character more finely Communicates Personality * Personality is easily communicated through dialogue, these questions will help: - How would I describe the language used by this character?

What sort of vocabulary does he/she use? /*The way in which you describe the language is likely to be similar to the description you would give to the character*/ - How does the language move? is it fluent and confident or halting and uncertain? Is it brisk and bubbly or slow and steady? - To what extent does one character dominate the dialogue? /*If a character dominates a dialogue he or she is generally tho more powerful personality*/ * The character's language will inevitably be a reflection of his or her personality Alters the mood quickly - It can change the tone and mood of the piece quickly. A sudden change can have a dramatic effect on a piece. * Dialogue can show significant contrasts between characters Creates a sense of immediacy (the here and now) * Can give the text a feeling that its all taking place in the present Gives the text a sense of reality and life - spoken words by characters gives us a first hand view and information that can't be attained form a third person's view without long descriptions Can transmit the themes of a text * Writers often give characters lines that reveal with the theme and meaning of a piece Metre - Should know how metre relates to rhythm - Stressed and unstressed - is the idea that each line of poetry should follow a consistent and exact pattern, it helps unify the text and hold it together - Rhythm - where metro is concerned with established patterns in poetry (the number of syllables and the stressed and unstressed syllables in a line) rhythm refers to the way in which we read aloud a line of poetry - it is related to the poem's movement - the way in which it progresses - it need not follow the metre as it does in nursery rhymes and it is important to look into the lines where the rhythm departs from a precise pattern. - Look where the rhythm departs from the text and ask the following questions: - Why has the writer done that here? - What effect does it have on the text?

- remember that the poet is trying to get your attention at that point through the change it pattern - Types of Metric feet "~" (unstressed) "/ "(Stressed) - Iambic foot ~ / ~ / - i.e. 'return' 'forgive' - most common foot in english poetry because the iambic pentameter (5 iambic feet) most closely resembles human speech - this feature makes it very suitable for dramatic verses - Trochaic foot / ~ / ~ -i.e. 'hollow' 'empty' * can create a solemn mood as the line commences with an stressed syllable - Dactylic foot / ~ ~ / ~ ~ - i.e. 'elephant' 'heavily' - can give a sombre mood because it begins with a stressed syllable - Anapestic foot ~ ~ / ~ ~ / -i.e. 'intervene' 'supersede' * can add an air of excitement or movement to a text - Other patterns - spondaic foot / / - pyrrhic foot ~ ~ - amphibrach foot ~ / ~ Punctuation - is a much overlooked element of analysis - Punctuation allows the writers to create pauses that enable them to group words in meaningful ways * Punctuation has a lot to do with pacing and pausing - it helps the author add drama to the text * In disturbing the natural flow of the piece, the author draws our attention to it. - The more forceful pauses come from end punctuating like periods, exclamation and question marks - The less forceful pauses come from mid-sentence punctuation like commas, semicolons and colons Caesura - A pause that occurs within a line. * can fall between enjambments OTHER FEATURES OF TEXT

Archaism - the use of outmoded language to create an 'other wordily' feel * The use of archaic diction can have the effect of transporting the reader to another world in another time Sympathetic Background * This refers to the way in which writers create a background for their characters that is sympathetic to them, or that mirrors their actions and feelings Unusual juxtapositions and binary opposites - this refers to what happens when a writer positions two or more unusual or unexpected words or ideas near each other i.e. "in the sun the slag heap slept" - Because both the 'sun' and 'slag heap' differ from each other both in visual appearance and associations, placing them beside each other create a dramatic effect of bringing two binary opposites creating a very stark contrast * the effect of juxtaposition is to enhance both of the elements that are juxtaposed. - imagine you held a black sheet of paper beside a white one, the black sheet will appear blacker and the white, whiter. -Pronouns - included under 'unusual juxtapositions' because a writer's use of personal pronouns in juxtaposition can tell the reader about his/her attitude to the subject. i.e. the use of "we" vs "I/you" would mean either two individuals joined or a separation of the two. * a writer may refer to two individuals as 'they' or 'we' at one point and as 'he' and 'she' at another. This is especially most effective when these pronouns are placed near each other that they highlight their separateness and differences. * Remember to always look carefully at pronouns; a great deal of valuable insight into meaning may be gained from them Paradox - Is a statement that is seemingly absurd or contradictory but upon closer inspection, it isn't i.e. 'the only thing permanent in the universe is change' * the function of a paradox in a text could be: * it intrigues and surprises the reader * It draws the reader further into the text in an effort the reconcile the contradiction * It often encapsulates deep, unexpected truths and complex ideas which are beneath the surface

* It frequently contains important issues which are essential to the meaning of the text as a whole Allusions - When the writer refers to an idea that is different or separate from the subject of the piece *It is NOT the same thing as symbolism. The writer is creating an interesting or enlightening connection between the text and another aspect of life or type of literature * This serves to make the text richer and more complex Narrator - Simply refers to the person who is telling the story. It is 'the voice' of the author or poet * NOTE: Students frequently confuse the writer with the narrator, it is important to remember that they are not the same * Remember that literature is nor really concerned with reality but with writers' versions of it. Literature is a construct it is not reality itself * Therefore, narrators bring their own layers of 'pseudo' reality to the text and we readers must be aware of this 'layering' effect * A narrator can be seen as a window through which we view the world the writer wants us to see * These windows can be plain clear glass (invisible narrator) or tinted glass (first person narrator) * be very aware of how the glass is decorated because this can tell a lot about the way the author wants us to view the piece. our attention can be drawn to the glass itself before what is behind. - Types of narrators - Omniscient narrator -there are two types, the 'transparent' and not 'transparent' - The transparent narrator - This narrator does not intrude upon the text in any way and there is no narratorial presence. - The narrator does not pass any judgements - The not 'transparent narrator - He intrudes upon the text and we are aware of him/her as an actual character or persona. - Passes judgements and comments on the actions of the characters * We must remember that the action of the text is in fact 'filtered' by the narrator. - We sense a narratorial presence - i.e. the one narrator in the "Unknown Citizen" - Summarized, the omniscient narrator:

sees everything sees into the minds of all the characters is impersonal can be a character him/herself 'filters what happens; and can be present/ absent and therefore intrusive/ unintrusive

- Third person narrator - Can elect to see into the mind of one particular character more than any other * This provides an interesting combination of the depth of insight associated with the first-person narrator and the breadth of view of the omniscient narrator - Multiple narrators - This is when we have different narrators when one narrator tells about some events the other did not experience * It is essential to discuss viewpoint when dealing with multiple narration. Literature is not concerned with reality but the author's version of it. * pay more attention to the layering effect when it comes to multiple narrators - First person narrator - The "I" narrates as the central character - he/she is in the story and at the same time telling it * We must take into account the character of the narrator before we read it because his character has been woven into the text. again, a tinted glass Stream of consciousness - Is a writer's way of recording somewhat chaotic business of someone's thoughts and feelings, and it is therefore much to do with the internal life of the character * the reader has to be alert and ask "whose mind am I in now" and "is this narrative or this character's thoughts" * The effect is giving the reader powerful insights into the minds and hearts of the character. First person soliloquy - is the speech of an actor who appears either alone upon the stage or in isolation and speaks aloud his thoughts and feelings - it is convention to believe what he says; there is no one about to either impress or deceive * When discussing soliloquy, consider these two points * What dramatic effect does it have upon the play? * In what ways does it reflect what you know about the character?

- Two types of soliloquy - private * is similar to our eavesdropping on a character who is revealing his/her private thoughts and feeling - directed to him/herself not anyone - public - breaking the fourth wall - addressed to the audience - most of the time when the villain of the piece uses this device to share his thoughts, feelings and often plans openly with us Word order - refers to the order in which a writer uses words * this can greatly influence the effect of the text on the readers * here are normal patterns of word order that are part of everyday speech, writers often break these conventions intentionally to create poetic effects and ephasize particular words *positions of emphasis are: * beginning/ end of a line * beginning/ end of poem * before/ after pause Dramatic irony - when the reader or audience know more than the other characters * its purpose is to draw attention to the gap that exists between what characters think they know and what is really the case * in satire, this can serve to illustrate folly or it can demonstrate a character's failure to understand or perceive truth - it places the audience into a detached, elevated and omniscient position * gives an objective view <!-- PLAY/DRAMA NOTES HERE - not important at the moment --> Approaches to text - some schools of literary criticism - no text comes to life until somebody interprets it, only then does in mean anything - There are different meanings we can find in a text, depending on the critical approach we use - there are numerous theories in this field and therefore a wide variety of possible approaches to literary texts - the following are brief summaries of some of the better-known approaches that might help to introduce the range of thinking in the areas - Marxist theory

- rests on the notion that all our thinking and behavior is the product of social conditions - argues that literary works can be understood and appreciated in terms of social and economic factors - Marxism is concerned with the issues of domination, subordination and power relations * Exploitation is a common theme, as is the notion of who speaks, who is listened to and what they say - Semiotic theory - Built upon the idea of signs and it works on the premise that there are signifiers and signifieds i.e. 'cat' (signifier) stands for the concept of a furry domestic animal with four legs and claws which is the cat (signified) - Ambiguity exists when the gap between the signifier and the signified leaves room for doubt * It is in this gap that we must strive to make meanings * Semioticians believe that there exists a gap between all signifiers and their signifieds, that they are never firmly connected and therefore language is always an inadequate means of representing the world - Psychoanalytic theory - owes its existence to the findings of Sigmund Freud - works need to identify and explain the presence of sexuality in a text on the grounds that sexuality is a significant constituent of the human psyche - the presence of the writer's unconscious mind at work in a text, sometimes betraying hidden desires * It can be divided into four types - author - contents of the work - structure - reader * premies that all texts have a sub-text and that what is not said is as important as what is * it looks at ambiguity, overemphasis, or avoidance * the unconscious of the text itself leaves crucial clues to its meaning - Feminist theory - an approach involving the notion that all thinking is creating - that if we think and speak about men and women in certain ways, they will be seen to be like that * concerned with the presentation of women in literary text, which is observed by a consideration of them in terms of their interaction with men * can give rise to interesting reflections on the portrayal of men in

literature, * like Marxism, its interested in the concepts of power, control and ownership, as with exploitation - New historicism - involves looking at literature in their political and historical contexts because they are seen as products of their time * interpret literature correctly through understanding its time * offers an opportunity to consider the interpretation of texts in a context not merely of past events but more importantly of power, control, authority and ideology - Deconstruction - argues that language is an inadequate method of imposing order on the world - writers can't express effectively and accurately with words * skeptical about binary opposites - they do not express life adequately because of its complex nature - does not appreciate what the text says, suggests that it cannot say anything that is either meaningful or conclusive * believes that there is no conclusive meaning attributable to a text, discussion enjoys a certain freedom and often results in the consideration of lively, if rather implausible possibilities

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