THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

Chronological Order Of Architecture

Submitted by : NARENDER KUMAR B.ARCH 3RD YEAR SUBMISSSION NO 1

Neolithic architecture
Neolithic architecture is the architecture of the Neolithic period. In Southwest Asia, Neolithicculturesappear soon after 10000 BC, initially in theLevant(Pre-Pottery Neolithic AandPre-Pottery Neolithic B and from there spread eastwards and westwards There are early Neolithic cultures in Southeast Anatolia, Syria and Iraq by 8000 BC, and food-producing societies first appear in southeast Europe by 7000 BC, and Central Europe by c. 5500 BC (of which the earliest cultural complexes . With very small exceptions (a few copperhatchetsandspearheads in theGreat Lakes region), the people of theAmericasand the Pacific remained at the Neolithic level oftechnologyup until the time of European contact. The neolithic peoples in theLevant,Anatolia,Syria, northernMesopotamiaandCentral Asiawere great builders, utilizingmud-brickto construct houses and villages. Atatalhyk, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe,long housesbuilt fromwattle and daubwere constructed. Elaborate tombs for the dead were also built.

Ancient Egyptian architecture

TheNilevalley has been the site of one of the most influentialcivilizationswhich developed a vast array of diverse structures encompassingancient Egyptianarchitecture. The architectural monuments, which include theGreat Pyramid of Gizaand theGreat Sphinx of Giza,

InAncient Egyptand other early societies, people believed in theomnipotenceof Gods, with many aspects of daily life were carried out with respect to the idea of the divine Due to the scarcity of wood,the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-bakedmud brickandstone, mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities.[2]From theOld Kingdomonward, stone was generally reserved fortombsandtemples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes.

Greek architecture
Thearchitecture of Ancient Greeceis the architecture produced by theGreek-speaking people whosecultureflourished on the Greek mainland and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC. Ancient Greek architecture is best known fromits temples, many of which are found throughout the region. The second important type of building that survives all over the Hellenic world is theopen-air theatre, with the earliest dating from around 350 BC. Other architectural forms that are still in evidence are the processional gateway, the public square (agora) surrounded by storied colonnade , the town council build, the public monument, the monumental tomb (mausoleum) and thestadium

TheParthenon, shows the common structural features of Ancient Greek architecture:crepidoma, columns, entablature, pediment

The rectangulartempleis the most common and best-known form of Greek public architecture. The temple did not serve the same function as a modern church, since the altar stood under the open sky in thetemenosor sacred precinct, often directly before the temple The architecture of Ancient Greece is of a trabeated or "post and lintel" form, i.e. it is composed of upright beams (posts) supporting horizontal beams (lintels). Although the existent buildings of the era are constructed in stone, it is clear that the origin of the style lies in simple wooden structures, with vertical posts supporting beams which carried a ridged roof.

The main lines of the Parthenon are all curved.

oportion and optical illusion

Orders

Architectural sculpture

Ancient Roman architecture

Ancient Roman architectureadopted certain aspects ofAncient Greek architecture, creating a newarchitecturalstyle Roman architects inventedRoman concreteand used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive stuccoor thin panels of marble or other colored stones calledrevetment.

Examples include theaqueducts of Rome, theBaths of Diocletianand theBaths of Caracalla, thebasilicasandColosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as thetown wallsofLugoinHispania Tarraconensis, or northern Spain. The use ofvaultsandarches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use.

Byzantine architecture

Byzantine architectureis thearchitectureof theByzantine Empire. The empire gradually emerged as a distinct artistic and cultural entity from what is today referred to as theRoman Empireafter AD 330, when the Roman EmperorConstantinemoved the capital of theRoman Empireeast fromRometoByzantium Buildings increased in geometric complexity,brickand plaster were used in addition tostonein the decoration

Islamic architecture
Islamic architecturehas encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious architecture styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures within the sphere of Islamic culture. Some distinctive structures in Islamic architecture aremosques,tombs,palacesandforts, although Islamic architects have of course also applied their distinctive design precepts to domestic architecture. TheIslamic conquest of Persiain the 7th century led early Islamic architects to borrow and adopt some traditions and ways of the fallenPersian empire. Islamic architecture thus borrows from Persian architecture and can be some what called an extension and further evolution of Persian architecture. The standard plan of Ottoman architecture was inspired in part by the example ofHagia SophiainConstantinople/Istanbu,Ilk hanidworks likeOljeituTomb and earlierSeljukand Anatolian Beylik monumental buildings and their own original innovations. Another distinctive sub-style is the architecture of theMughal Empire inSouth Asiain the 16th century and a fusion ofArabic,Central AsianandPersianelements with the localHindu architecture. The most famous examples of Mughal architecture are the series of imperial mausolea, which started with the pivotalTomb of Humayun, but is best known for theTaj Mahal, completed in 1648 by emperor Shah Jahan

Elements of Islamic style

Iwan and domes

Mihraborprayer niche & arches

Minaretsor towers

Chinese architecture
Chinese architecturerefers to a style ofarchitecturethat has taken shape inEast Asiaover many centuries. The structural principles ofChinesearchitecturehave remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. Since theTang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles ofKorea,Vietnam, and Japan An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis onarticulationand bilateral symmetry, which signifies balance. Bilateral symmetry and the articulation of buildings are found everywhere in Chinese architecture, from palace complexes to humble farmhouses. Use of large structural timbers for primary support of the roof of a building. Wooden timber, usually large trimmed logs, are used as loadbearing columns and lateral beams for framing buildings and supporting the roofs.

Japanese architecture
Japanese architecture has as long a history as any other aspect of Japanese culture. Influenced heavily by Chinese and Korean architecture, it also shows a number of important differences and aspects which are uniquely Japanese.

The introduction into Japan ofBuddhismin the sixth century was a catalyst for large scaletemplebuilding using complicated techniques in wood. Influence from the ChineseT'angandSuiDynasties led to the foundation of the first permanent capital inNara The general structure is almost always the same:postsandlintelssupport a large and gently curved roof, while the walls are paper-thin, often movable and in any case non-carrying. Arches and barrel roofs are completely absent. Gable and eave curves are gentler than in China and columnarentasis(convexity at the center) limited.

Indian architecture
Thearchitecture of Indiais rooted in itshistory,cultureandreligion Indian architecture progressed with time and assimilated the many influences that came as a result ofIndia's global discourse with other regions of the world

Indus Valley Civilization (3300 Flourishing around the Indus River basin, the civilization BCE-1300BCE)

A well and drainage system atLothal.

primarily centred along the Indus and the Punjab region The Indus Valley is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million. The baths and toilets system the cities had is acknowledged as one of the most advanced in the ancient world.

Hindu temple architecture,Buddhist architecture, andIndian rock-cut architecture

A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, thegarbha grihaor womb-chamber, in which the image is housed, often circumambulation, a congregation hall, and possibly an antechamber and porch. The sanctum is crowned by a towerlikeshikara. Nagara style: The tower/shikhar is beehive/curvilinear shaped. Dravida style: The tower/shikhar consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions Buddhist architecture :Three types of structures are associated with thereligious architectureof earlyBuddhism: monasteries (viharas),stupas, and temples (Chaitya grihas).

Rock-cut architectureis the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. ThePallavaarchitects started the carving of rock for the creation of a monolithic copies of structural temples. rock-cut cave architecture became more sophisticated as in theEllora Caves culminating ultimately the monolithicKailash Temple.

Renaissance architecture
Romanesque architecture is the term that is used to describe the architecture of Middle Ages Europe which evolved into the Gothic style beginning in the 12th century. The term "Romanesque", meaning "descended from Roman", was used to describe the style from the early 19th century Romanesque architecture is known by its massive quality, its thick walls, round arches, sturdy piers, groin vaults, large towers and decorative arcading. Each building has clearly defined forms and they are frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan so that the overall appearance is one of simplicity. Arches in Romanesque architecture are semicircular, with the exception of a very small number of buildings in which pointed arches have been used extensively. While small windows might be surmounted by a solid stone lintel, larger windows are nearly always arched. Doorways are also surmounted by a semi-circular arch, except where the door is set into a large arched recess and surmounted by a semicircular "lunette" with decorative carving. Renaissance style places emphasis onsymmetry,proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture .Orderly arrangements ofcolumns,pilastersandlintels, as well as the use of semicirculararches,hemisphericaldomes,nichesandaediculesre placed the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles ofmedievalbuildings.

European and colonial architecture

The periods ofMannerismand theBaroque that followed the Renaissance signaled an increasing anxiety over meaning and representation. Important developments in science and philosophy had separated mathematical representations of reality from the rest of culture, fundamentally changing the way humans related to their world through architecture.

Art Nouveau

The work ofVictor HortaandHenry van de Veldein Brussels,Antoni Gaudin Barcelona,Otto Wagnerin Vienna andCharles Rennie Mackintoshin Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.

Early Modern architecture

Expressionist architecture was an architectural movement that developed in Northern Europe during the first decades of the 20th century in parallel with the expressionistvisual and performing arts. The style was characterized by an early-modernistadoption of novel materials, formal innovation, and very unusual massing, sometimes inspired by natural biomorphic forms, sometimes by the new technical possibilities offered by the mass production of brick, steel and especially glass. By 1925 most of the leading architects of Expressionism such as; Bruno Taut,Walter Gropius,Mies van der RoheandHans Poelzig, along with other Expressionists in the visual arts.

Distortion of form for an emotional effect. Subordination ofrealismto symbolic or stylistic expression of inner experience. An underlying effort at achieving the new, original, and visionary. Profusion of works on paper, and models, with discovery and representation ofconceptsmore important than pragmatic finished products. Themes of natural romantic phenomena, such as caves, mountains, lightning crystal and rock formations. As such it is more mineral and elemental than florid and organic which characterized its close contemporaryart nouveau. Utilizes creative potential ofartisancraftsmanship.

International Style
By the 1920s the most important figures in modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized asLe Corbusierin France, andLudwig Mies van der RoheandWalter Gropiusin Germany. The common characteristics of the International Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of ornament, and adoption of glass, steel and concrete as preferred materials. Further, the transparency of buildings, construction (called the honest expression of structure), and acceptance of industrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's design philosophy.

Contemporary architecture
Contemporary architectureis generally speaking thearchitectureof thepresenttime. The term contemporary architecture is also applied to a range of styles of recently built structures and space which are optimized for current use

Modern architecture
Modern architectureis generally characterized by simplification of form and creation of ornament from the structure and theme of the building. It is a term applied to an overarching movement, with its exact definition and scope varying widely.[1]In a broader sense, modern architecture began at the turn of the 20th century with efforts to reconcile the principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and themodernizationof society Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement includeFrank Lloyd Wright,Ludwig Mies van der Rohe,Le Corbusier,Oscar Niemeyer,Alvar Aalto,Walter GropiusandLouis I Kahn.

Common themes of modern architecture include:

the notion that "Form follows function", a dictum originally expressed by Frank Lloyd Wright's early mentorLouis Sullivan, meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its purpose simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of "unnecessary detail" visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of structural elements) the related concept of "Truth to materials", meaning that the true nature or natural appearance of a material ought to be seen rather than concealed or altered to represent something else use of industrially-produced materials; adoption of the machine aesthetic particularly in International Style modernism, a visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines

ostmodern architecture aims of Postmodernism, including solving the problems of The

Modernism, communicating meanings with ambiguity, and sensitivity for the buildings context, are surprisingly unified for a period of buildings designed by architects who largely never collaborated with each other. These characteristics include the use of sculptural forms, ornaments,anthropomorphismand materials These physical characteristics are combined with conceptua characteristics of meaning. Robert VenturisVanna Venturi House(196264) illustrates the Postmodernist aim of communicating a meaning and the characteristic of symbolism.

Deconstructivist architecture
Deconstructivismis a development ofpostmodern architecturethat began in the late 1980s. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin, nonrectilinear shapes which serve to distort and dislocate some of theelements of architecture, such as structure and envelope. The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist "styles" is characterized by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos. The New York exhibition featured works by Frank Gehry,Daniel,Rem Koolhaas,Peter Eisenman,Zaha Hadid, andBernard Tschumi. Deconstructivism incontemporary architecturestands in opposition to the ordered rationality ofModernism One example of deconstructivist complexity isFrank Gehry's Vitra Design Museum in Weil-am-Rhein, which takes the typical unadorned white cube of modernistart galleriesand deconstructs it, using geometries reminiscent of cubism and abstract expressionism

Run Run Shaw Creative Media Centre, Seattle Central by Daniel Libeskind Computer-aided design Libraryby Rem Computer aided designis now an essential tool in most aspects of contemporary architecture, KoolhaasandOMA but the particular nature of deconstrucivism makes the use of computers especially pertinent. Three-dimensional modeling and animation