COGNITIVE THEORY

BY : Muhammad Abdul Muiz bin Abd Rahman Wan Nur Akmal bt W.Aris Noorsyahirah bt Rubaai Farah Nadia bt Ismail Nursyazwani bt Hamdan

Definition
Cognitive derived from the Latin, meaning to know or to think. Cognition refers to the process by which the mind acquires, represents, and applying knowledge, encompassing sensation, perception, reasoning, learning language and production, problem-solving and memory. The act or experience of knowing, including awareness of stimuli and judgement about them.

What is the cognitive theory about?

Cognitive theory is focused on the individual's thoughts as the determinate of his or her emotions and behaviours and therefore personality. Many cognitive theorists believe that without these thought processes, we could have no emotions and no behaviour and would therefore not function.

In other words, thoughts always come before any feeling and before any action. Advertisement

Learning theories based on Cognitive perspective :

Kohler Tolman Piaget R.M. Gagne Bruner Ausubel

Wolfgang Kohler
born on 21 January 1887 in Revel, Estonia One of the early German gestalt psychologists famous for his description of insight learning which he tested on animals, particularly chimpanzees.

Kohlers Theory
Wolfgang Kohler (1925) took a cognitive perspective when he explained the problem-solving behaviour he observed in chimpanzees. He believed that these animals, as well as humans, could learn how to solve problems based on insight - perception of the relationship between stimuli which is used to solve problems. The cognitive approach study how a chimpanzee managed to obtain a banana which was hung on a roof of his cage.

In his experiment, he gave chimpanzees such objects as boxes and sticks and then hung bananas out of reach to see what the chimpanzees would do to get the bananas.

In the beginning, the chimpanzees tried with several attempts to jump up but failed to reach banana.

Eventually the chimpanzee stacked the boxes and extended their reach using the stick to knock down the bananas.

Kohler thought this sudden assimilation of objects was due to the animal's having a mental insight into possible arrangements that would solve the problem. -VIDEO

Implication of Kohlers Learning Theory

Teacher needs to encourage pupils to use their insight to solve learning problems. Guide pupils to use their perception to relate elements in the surrounding. Present teaching activities step by step and follow suitable sequences. Use specific related examples to guide pupils so that they can make use of their insight to derive conclusion or generalization. The teaching of new experience must be based on pupils ability and existing experience. Provide sufficient learning materials so that pupils can apply these materials to solve problems.

E.C Tolman
Edward Chance Tolman proposed a theory that had a cognitive flair. An individuals ability to ascertain the signals during the learning process depends on his perception and cognitive capability. Tolman coined the term "cognitive map", which was an internal perceptual representation of external environmental features and landmarks. By using internal representation of a physical space, individual could get to the goal by knowing where it is in a complex of environmental features.

Cognitive Map
Tolman proposed that rats and other organisms develop cognitive maps of their environments. i.e : The rats learn where different parts of the environment are situated in relation to one another. According to Tolman, the rats found the right path leading to the box food because they had already perceived the actual overall situation to achieve their objective. Tolman thought that training would lead to a tendency to go to a certain place. The subjects would learn where to go, not just how to go. The concept of a cognitive map also called a mental map has continued to be a focus of research.

VIDEO

Implication of Tolmans learning theory

Teacher should train pupils to use their perception accurately to achieve the learning objective. Perception is important for pupils to relate stimuli (symbol,term and language) with language skills or knowledge. Teacher ought to guide pupils to form cognitive map . E.g : pupils ought to have an overall picture of the contents before learning.

PIAGET
Jean Piaget (18961980) was a Swiss scholar who began to study childrens intellectual development at the beginning of the twentieth century. Piagets job was to give children questions and to score their answers as correct or not. What captivated Piaget was not so much whether the children could answer the questions correctly but the fact that children of similar ages were making similar mistakes and that childrens thinking was qualitatively different from adult thinking. The stages of cognitive development according to Piaget are: Sensory-motor stage (birth to age 2) Pre-operational stage (ages 27) Concrete operational stage (ages 712) Formal operational stage (ages 12-16)

schema

assimilation

Piaget cognitive learning theory

equilibration

accommodation

 Schema-referred as a structured clusters of information which is used to represent a certain event, concept, action or process.

Adaptation-process of change in schema so as to meet the requirement of a certain situation. Equilibration-equivalent to internal motivating process (learning motivation) Assimilation and accommodation-depends entirely on the decision involving the individuals cognitive structure.

Implication of Piagets Theory

1. Learning content ought to be arranged according to the childrens level of cognitive development. For Example: from concrete to abstract, from nearby to distant, from existing experience to new experience, and from elementary to complex according to the individuals physical and mental development. 2. Learning is a change in behavior

Robert Gagne
Born in 1916 in North Andover, Massachusetts. Concerning about how people obtain information during learning process. Well known for theory of conditional learning Taxonomy of learning outcomes: learning domain Specific learning condition: Hierarchy of Learning 9 instructional events

 According to Gagne, stimuli from the external environment will activate the nerve system in the sensory organs. Information will be interpreted in the short term memory component, encode, transit and store in the long term memory component in conceptual form. When retrieve, it will first enter the response operator, then will decide, control and exhibit human behaviour that interacts with the environment.
ENVIRONMENT

Stimuli

Implementation/control (BEHAVIOUR)

Sensory-organ recorder Short-term memory

Response theory

Long-term memory

Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning

Robert Gagne developed his taxonomy of learning in 1972. Gagne's taxonomy was comprised of five categories: verbal information intellectual skill cognitive strategy attitude motor skill

 Verbal information: Reciting something from memory Intellectual skills: Discrimination: Recognizing that two classes of things differ Concrete concept: Classifying things by their physical features alone Defined concept: Classifying things by their abstract (and possibly physical) features Rule: Applying a simple procedure to solve a problem or accomplish a task Higher-order rule: Applying a complex procedure (or multiple simple procedures) to solve a problem or accomplish a task Cognitive strategies: Inventing or selecting a particular mental process to solve a problem or accomplish a task Attitudes: Choosing to behave in a way that reflects a newly-acquired value or belief Motor skills: Performing a physical task to some specified standard

Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning

The Nine Events of Instruction

Event of Instruction
1. Gaining attention Giving learner a stimulus to ensure reception of coming instruction 2. Informing the learner of the objective Telling learner what they will be able to do for the instruction 3. Stimulating recall of prior learning Asking for recall of existing relevant knowledge 4. Presenting the stimulus Displaying the content 5. Providing learner guidance Supplying organization and relevance to enhance understanding

Learning Process
Attention

Expectancy

Retrieval to working memory

Pattern recognition; selective perception Chunking, rehearsal, encoding

The Nine Events of Instruction

Events of Instruction
6. Eliciting performance Asking learners to respond, demonstrating learning 7. Providing Feedback Giving immediate feedback on learner's performance. 8. Assessing performance Providing feedback to learners' more performance for reinforcement 9. Enhancing retention and transfer Providing diverse practice to generalize the capability

Learning Process
Retrieval, responding

Reinforcement, error correction

Responding, retention

Retention, retrieval, generalization

Implication of Gagnes Taxonomy

1. Mathematical facts. Mathematical facts are mathematics language such as symbols which used to represent number, operation sign +, -, x, triangle and so on. Mathematical facts can be learned through memorization, verbal and written practices and games.

Implication of Gagnes Taxonomy

2. Mathematical skills Skills are procedure and operation carried out accurately in a reasonable, appropriate time. For example, mathematical skills include operations +, -, x, constructing right angle, drawing circle, etc. This skills can be mastered by practices and games.

Implication of Gagnes Taxonomy

3. Mathematics concept is an abstract ideas derived from concrete examples. Definition given in the form of perimeter, equilateral triangle , set, subset, prime number are the examples of mathematics concept Mathematics concepts can be mastered trough the understanding of definition or observations of objects related to concepts.

Implication of Gagnes Taxonomy

4. Mathematics concept is and integration of and a relationship between mathematics concept. Mathematics concept can be learned trough the process of inquiry-discovery or problem solving. A pupil is said to have mastered certain principle when the pupil is able to ascertain the concepts contained in the principles.

Jerome Bruner
born in New York in 1915 was a founder of cognitive psychology and one of the key figures in the cognitive revolution of the 1960s wrote The Process of Education, which emphasizes curriculum innovation grounded in theories of cognitive development. Concept : Conjunctive concept Disjunctive concept Relational concept

Conjunctive conceptconcept which contains two or more integrated attributes and they cannot be separated. i.e : a pencil is made up of lead and used as a writing instrument. Both attribute cannot be separated, if one of them is put aside, the concept of pencil is incomplete.

Disjunctive conceptattributes which have been integrated into a concept so that they can be used in other situations. i.e : a good service in tennis game is when a player who can send the ball skilfully to the opponent and the opponent unable to return the ball right to the server. Both situations can be grouped under the concept of good service.

Relational conceptattributes contains concept which possess relationship between one another. i.e : 1) animals with back bones (fish,mammal,reptile, amphibian and bird) 2) animals without backbones (cuttlefish,insect,spider and centipede) *The method of categorization make easier way to identify,understand,learn or remember various types of information.

BRUNER
According to Bruner, language is important representation in human cognitive development. He argues that language can code stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible cognition. In his opinion, people use symbols and language so as to help them think and solve problems by means of conceptualization and derivation of generalizations.

Implication of Bruners Theory

1. Theorem of Learning Mathematics a) Theorem of Construction the most effective for a pupil to master a certain concept, law or principle is to construct representation to represent mathematics concept, principle or law. For example, a pupil might master the commutative law by using discovery method to obtain the law

Implication of Bruners Theory

b) Theorem of Notation Mathematical notations should be introduced according to the pupils cognitive development.

Implication of Bruners Theory

c) Theorem of Contrast and Variation. The procedure to introduce abstract representation from concrete representation involves contrast and variation operations. For example, concept like curve, radius and diameter will be more meaningful if their characteristics can be distinguished clearly.

Implication of Bruners Theory

d) Theorem of Relation Every mathematics concept, principle and skill ought to relate with other concept, principle and skill. During the teaching process teacher should use existing concept to form new concept.

Implication of Bruners Theory

2. The Strategy of Teaching and Learning Mathematics. Pupils are able to use discovery method to form concepts during learning process. Children can form new concept by classifying objects according either to their similar or different characteristics For example, children will able to ascertain that all types of three-sided plan figures are included in the category of triangle.

David Ausubel
born in 1918 , New York Emphasized on meaningful learning. Meaningful learning is good for pupil to assimilate information effectively in their existing cognitive structure. Suggested the use of advance organizer.

Meaningful Learning According to Ausubel theory, to learn meaningfully, individuals must relate new knowledge to relevant concepts they already know. New knowledge must interact with the learners knowledge structure. Meaningful learning can be contrasted with rote learning. Meaningful Learning: Non-arbitrary, non-verbatim, substantive incorporation of new knowledge into cognitive structure. Deliberate effort to link new knowledge with higher order concepts in cognitive structure Learning related to experiences with events or objects. Affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior learning. Rote Learning: Arbitrary, verbatim, non-substantive incorporation of new knowledge into cognitive structure. No effort to integrate new knowledge with existing concepts in cognitive structure. Learning not related to experience with events or objects. No affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior learning.

Advance Organizer
Ausubel advocates the use of advance organizers as a mechanism to help to link new learning material with existing related ideas. Ausubels theory of advance organizers fall into two categories: comparative and expository. Comparative Organizers Comparative organizers activate existing schemas and is used as reminders to bring into the working memory of what you may not realize is relevant. A comparative organizer is also used both to integrate as well as to discriminate. It integrates new ideas with basically similar concepts in cognitive structure. Expository Organizers Expository organizers are often used when the new learning material is unfamiliar to the learner. They often relate what the learner already knows with the new and unfamiliar materialthis in turn is aimed to make the unfamiliar material more possible to the learner. The suggested advance organizer can be in the form of concept,law or specific examples as to relate to existing information.

Implication of Ausubels Learning Theory

1. Teach new concept, principle and law by relating them with the existing concepts, principles and laws. 2. Use advance organizer as learning motivation at the beginning of each lesson. 3. Use meaningful reception learning by arranging the learning contents systematically and according to the stages.

Implication of Ausubels Learning Theory

4. Apply specific but related examples for learning, using inductive approach to guide pupils so as to derive generalization, concept, principle or law accurately. 5. Use concept, principle and law which have been learned for deductive learning and guide pupils to apply them in various specific examples or formulate new concept, principles or law.

Strategies for Teaching Kids with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

 ADHD is a genetic brain disorder which runs in families (Cook, 2005). Students may have difficulties initiating and sustaining social relationship with their peers, and suffer often from low selfesteem.

Classroom interventions for students

Sherman(2006) addresses how attention problems and learning can be dealt with in helping students with ADHD learn to read and write. Limiting distractions in the classroom is a simple strategy that teachers can implement before beginning a lesson. Teaching students to scan for chapter headings, paraphrasing, and providing outlines are ways students can simplify information presented in texts when reading.

 When writing students and teachers can use graphic organizers as flow charts, students can be taught to self-edit their work, and providing students with models of what a completed piece of written work looks like helps students visualize the end goal. In addition to these strategies students will most likely require time outside of the regular classroom instruction to further develop organization and study skills related to reading and writing.

 Calling on students often, giving students a variety of cues and instant feedback in regards to behavior, and providing specific learning goals while stressing the importance of having such goals.

Classwide Interventions
Classwide interventions are also known as class-level, classroom-level, and classroomwide interventions, meaning a teacher uses an intervention to help one student function better in class but all students reap the benefits, and the student for which the intervention is intended may remain anonymous.

Therapy balls
Therapy balls are used as an alternative to the traditional classroom chair. Therapy balls have been in use at this author's school for students in a pull-out special education classroom. Teachers report that students prefer this type of seating and that students are able to focus on their work better than when at a traditional chair and table setting.

 This makes sense according to the theory of optimal stimulation which states, children diagnosed with ADHD display increased activity when they are in situations with low levels of stimulation, due to their high stimulation threshold (Antrop, Buysse, Roeyers, & Van Oost, 2005).

 Sitting in a chair can be quite under stimulating, but if sitting on a ball where one can slightly bounce and roll, this could satiate one's stimulation threshold thereby making the task of focusing easier on the student.

Peer monitoring
Peer monitoring allows students to look out for one another's behavior and offer positive reinforcement. Students identify and define correct and incorrect behaviors. When positive behavior is observed, reinforcement by a peer is provided for the appropriate behavior.

Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring allows a student to evaluate and record his or her own behavior and compare it with the teacher's independent rating of behavior. This type of learning is advantageous because the student is taught to be more independent and the delivery of contingencies becomes less and less for the teacher making the student less dependent upon him or her. Self-monitoring also supports the learned response of a specific behavior.

THE INSTRUMENT TO MEASURE THE COGNITIVE LEVEL

The Measure of Intellectual Development (MID) (Knefelkamp, 1974)

The MID consists of sentence completion items and semi-structured essays. Participants responses to these items are examined for cues relating to one or more Perry levels (a Intellectual and Ethical Development philosopher) -(Baxter Magolda & Porterfield, 1988).

EXAMPLES:
ESSAY A (Knefelkamp & Widick, 1974) Describe the best course you've experienced in your education. What made it positive for you? Feel free to go into as much detail as you think is necessary to give a clear idea of the course. For example, you might want to discuss areas such as the subject matter, class activities (readings, films, etc.), what the teacher was like, the atmosphere of the class, the evaluation procedures--whatever you think was most important in making this experience so positive for you. Please be as specific as possible in your response, describing as completely as you can why the issues you discuss stand out to you as important.
ESSAY AP (Knefelkamp & Widick, 1974) Describe a course that would represent the ideal learning experience for you. Please be as specific and concrete as possible about what this course would include; use as much detail as you think is necessary to present clearly this ideal situation. For example, you might want to discuss what the content or subject matter would be, what the teacher/s would be like, your responsibilities as a student, the evaluation procedures that would be used, and so on. Please explain why you feel the specific course aspects you discuss are "ideal" for you.

ESSAY Q (Moore & MacGregor, 1992; Moore, 2002) Look back on your experiences in this course or program and reflect on your learning in the course as well as discoveries about yourself as a learner. Please be specific and concrete; provide as much detail about what stood out for you as you think is necessary to offer a clear idea of your learning experience. For example, you might want to discuss any or all of the following topics: the content/subject matter, the kinds of teachers and teaching you experienced, the classroom atmosphere, your role as a student, the evaluation procedures that were used. What elements have made a difference in your learning, and why? ESSAY C (Knefelkamp & Slepitza, 1976) One of the major issues in many individuals' lives concerns career planning and vocational decision-making. Individuals approach this issue in very different ways; please discuss in detail the things you consider when thinking about the question of career decisionmaking in your own life. Please be as specific as you can, providing examples whenever possible so that we can understand how you think about the issue of careers.