OVERLAND FLOW

Splash Erosion : Dispersal of fine particles due to impact of rain drops Unconcentrated (Sheet) Wash : Thin layer of water moving over slopes during rainfall. Concentrated Wash : Flow of water on slope during rainfall in small & narrow channels (Rills) or broad & deep channels (Gullys). Overland flow can detach & transport fine grained sediments (silt & clay sizes) on slopes. Most overland flow reaches the foots of slopes in valleys where streams are found.

STREAMS & RIVERS

STREAMS & RIVERS

Bodies of water that flow from highland to lowland areas along well defined channels located in valleys; only difference being that streams carry small volumes of water. Most flow to the sea or oceans, except for those in inter-montane basins that often flow into lakes. Found in all areas of the world, though having more active roles as agents of erosion & deposition in areas with humid climates, particularly in the humid tropics.

 PERENIAL - Water in channels throughout

the year. Groundwater table close to ground surface and contributes to water flow during drier periods. TEMPORARY - Water in channels during periods of rainfall. Groundwater table at great depths and does not contribute to water flow. Also in cold climates, where water flow during summer. INTERMITTENT - Water in channels during periods of rainfall and some time after. Groundwater table relatively close to ground surface - contributes to water flow following their rise as a result of rainwater infiltration.

DRAINAGE BASIN : Area influenced by a river

& its tributary streams. Limited by drainage divide.

DRAINAGE BASIN : Area influenced by a

river & its tributary streams. Limited by the drainage divide.

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE

STREAM CHANNEL

WIDTH (W) : Width of channel between river

banks measured along the surface. DEPTH (D) : Difference in height between surface of water and channel floor or bed. Depth usually variable along cross-section between river banks. CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA (A) : Area of cross-section between river banks measured perpendicular to the banks. WETTED PERIMETER (P) : That part of the cross-section that is in direct contact with the water.

STREAM CHANNEL
CHANNEL GRADIENT () : Angle between the hoizontal and the water surface. Different parameters are dependent upon the volume of water flowing in the channel stream. Hydraulic Radius (r) = A/P Influences velocity of water. Shape Ratio = D/W Due to frictional drag, maximum stream velocity is at center of channel near the surface and minimum near the channel floor (bed) and sides (banks).

Variations in Hydraulic Radius

STREAM DISCHARGE
Flow of water through a stream or river channel. Measured in cubic meters per second. Q = A x Vm = Wm X Dm x Vm where Q is the discharge, A is the cross-sectional area, Vm is the mean velocity, Wm is the average width and Dm is the average depth of flow. Stream discharge varies over both time and space.

 Discharge normally increases downstream as more water enters the stream channel from overland flow and groundwater. Discharge also varies temporally because of variations in inputs as precipitation (rainfall) and snow melt. When discharge increases, there is are corresponding changes in velocity, channel depth & width within the stream system. Of the three variables that change within the stream system with an increase in discharge, velocity is the least responsive.

HYDROGRAPH
Plot of stream discharge versus time.

STREAM VELOCITY
Dynamics of stream flow primarily influenced by friction, channel topography & channel shape. Three types flow can be observed: LAMINAR FLOW Water flows as parallel molecular streams and not altered in its direction. TURBULENT FLOW - Water flows as discrete eddies & vortices due to channel topography and friction. HELICAL FLOW - Spiral flow in a stream due to channel shape. Meandering channels cause this type of flow. In three dimensions, there is a complex pattern as the line of maximum velocity (THALWEG) moves from side to side within a channel.

Line of maximum velocity (THALWEG) moves from side

STREAM LOAD
Various materials are transported by streams as they flow from highland areas towards low-lying terrain. Materials (or Sediments) brought into streams not only by overland flow, but also by erosion of the channel sides (or banks) and floors (or stream beds). Quantity of sediments varies temporally due to changes in discharge. Normally, as discharge and velocity increase, the amount of sediment being carried by the stream rises correspondingly.

STREAM LOAD
When discharge increases, more sediment is eroded from stream bed and stream banks. Streams generally transport three types of material: BED LOAD Sand & pebbles which move along stream bed without being permanently suspended in the flowing water SUSPENDED LOAD Silts & clays in suspension DISSOLVED LOAD Material in solution. Absolute quantities and the relative proportions of these types of stream load vary from one stream to another, and within a single stream from one time to another.

STREAM LOAD

STREAM EROSION

DETACHMENT, TRANSPORT & DEPOSITION OF PARTICLES BY STREAMS

CRITICAL VELOCITY (cm/sec) FOR EROSION, TRANSPORTATION & DEPOSITION

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE - Variations in gradient & velocity - Graded profile Equilibrium between erosion & deposition

CHANNEL CHANGES ALONG PROFILE

DELTA (RIVER MOUTH) Deposition of sediments

INCREASED DISCHARGE FLOODS Coarse sediments deposited close to channel (Levees), while finer sediment deposited further away (Back-swamp deposits)

DEVELOPMENT OF LEVEES

SUMMARY
Streams drain land areas & transport sediment from highland to lowland areas. In highland areas, down-cutting of channels (linear erosion) is dominant, whilst in lowland areas, lateral movement of river channels is dominant. Variations in velocity due to environmental factors (especially rainfall), give rise to different sites of erosion or deposition (i.e. different sizes of particles, etc). At river mouths, deposition predominates giving rise to deltas.