INTERNET AND TCP/IP

BY CTTC, KOLKATA

AGENDA
WHAT IS COMPUTER NETWORK

EVOLUTION OF NETWORKS
STANDARDISATION OF NETWORK OSI REFERENCE MODEL

CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORK
NETWORKING COMPONETS NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES TCP/IP PROTOCOL

WHAT IS COMPUTER NETWORK

 A NETWORK IS THE MECHANISM THAT

ENABLES DISTRIBUTED COMPUTERS AND THEIR USERS TO COMMUNICATE AND SHARE RESOURCES.

EVOLUTION OF NETWORKS
NETWORKS ORIGINALLY WERE HIGHLY PROPRIETARY.

CONNECTIVITY SOLUTIONS THAT WERE AN INTEGRAL PART OF AN EQUALLY PROPRIETARY BUNDLED COMPUTING SOLUTION. COMPANIES THAT AUTOMATED THEIR DATA PROCESSING OR ACCOUNTING FUNCTIONS DURING THE PRIMITIVE DAYS BEFORE PERSONAL COMPUTERS, HAD TO COMMIT TO A SINGLE VENDOR FOR A TRUNKEY SOLUTION.

 IN THESE ENVIRONMENTS, THE APPLICATION SOFTWARE

EXECUTED ONLY ON A COMPUTER SUPPORTED BY A SINGLE OPERATING SYSTEM. THE OPERATING SYSTEM COULD EXECUTE ONLY WITHIN THE BOUNDARY OF THE SAME VENDORS HARDWARE PRODUCTS. EVEN THE USERS TERMINAL AND CONNECTIVITY TO THE COMPUTER WERE PART OF THE SAME, ONE-VENDOR INTEGRATED SOLUTION.

 THEN TWO DEVELOPMENTS OCCURRED THAT CHANGED

THE FUTURE COURSE OF COMPUTING. FIRST THE PCs BEGAN TO APPEAR. THESE DEVICES WERE INNOVATIVE IN THAT THEY PLACED COMPUTATIONAL POWER RIGHT AT THE DESKTOP. SECOND THE SCIENTIST AT Xerox's PALO ALTO RESEARCH CENTER(PARC) BEGAN TO DEVELOP SOMETHING FOR SHARING OF FILES AND DATA BETWEEN THEIR INTELLIGENT WORKSTATIONS THEIR SOLUTION WAS THE ORIGINAL LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN). THEY CALLED IT ETHERNET. IT IS ALSO KNOWN AS PARC ETHERNET OR ETHERNET I.

 THEN THIS ETHERNET WAS DEVELOPED BY THREE

ORGANISATIONS DIGITAL, INTEL AND XEROX AND THIS ETHERNET BECAME KNOWN AS DIX ETHERNET OR ETHERNET II. FURTHER IT WAS DEVELOPED BY IEEE BY THEIR PROJECT 802. 802.3 ETHERNET 802.4 TOKEN RING 802.11 WI-FI LAN 802.16 - WIMAX

STANDARDISATION OF NETWORK

 THE SUCCESS OF ETHERNET I AND II

DEMONSTRATED THAT THE MARKETPLACE WAS TIRED OF THE PROPRIETARY APPROACH TO BUNDLED NETWORKING AND COMPUTING. CUSTOMER BEGAN DEMANDING A MORE OPEN ENVIRONMENT THAT WOULD ENABLE THEM TO BUILD APPLICATIONS FROM MIXED AND MATCHED PRODUCTS FROM DIFFERENT VENDORS.

 ISO DEVELOPED THE OPEN SYSTEMS

INTERCONNECTION (OSI) REFERENCE MODEL TO FACILITATE THE OPEN INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS. AN OPEN INTERCONNECTION IS ONE THAT CAN BE SUPPORTED IN A MULTIVENDOR ENVIRONMENT.

 THE OSI MODEL CATEGORISES THE VARIOUS

PROCESSES THAT ARE NEEDED IN A COMMUNICATION SESSION INTO SEVEN DISTINCT FUNCTIONAL LAYERS. THE LAYERS ARE ORGANISED BASED ON THE NATURAL SEQUENCE OF EVENTS THAT OCCURS DURING A COMMUNICATION SESSION. BASICALLY LAYERS 1-3 PROVIDE NETWORK ACCESS, WHEREAS LAYERS 4-7 ARE DEDICATED TO THE LOGISTICS OF SUPPORTING END TO END COMMUNICATIONS.

LAYER 1 PHYSICAL LAYER

THE BOTTOM LAYER IS CALLED THE PHYSICAL

LAYER AND IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE TRANSMISSION OF THE BIT STREAM. IT ACCEPTS FRAMES OF DATA FROM LAYER 2 (DATA LINK LAYER) AND TRANSMITS THEIR STRUCTURE AND CONTENT SERIALLY, ONE BIT AT A TIME. IT IS ALSO RESPONSIBLE FOR THE RECEPTION OF INCOMING STREAMS OF DATA, ONE BIT AT A TIME. THESE STREAMS ARE THEN PASSED ON TO THE DATA LINK LAYER FOR REFRAMING.

 THIS LAYER, QUITE LITERALLY, SEES ONLY 1s AND

0s. IT HAS NO MECHANISM FOR DETERMINING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BITS IT TRANSMITS OR RECEIVES. IT IS SOLELY CONCERNED WITH THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRICAL AND/OR OPTICAL SIGNALLING TECHNIQUES. THIS INCLUDES THE VOLTAGE OF THE ELECTRICAL CURRENT USED TO TRANSPORT THE SIGNAL, THE MEDIA TYPE AND IMPEDENCE CHARACTERISTICS, AND EVEN THE PHYSICAL SHAPE OF THE CONNECTOR USED TO TERMINATE THE MEDIA.

LAYER 2 DATA LINK LAYER

THE SECOND LAYER OF OSI MODEL IS CALLED THE DATA

LINK LAYER. ON THE TRANSMIT SIDE DATA LINK LAYER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR PACKING INSTRUCTIONS, DATA AND SO FORTH INTO FRAMES. A FRAME IS A STRUCTURE INDIGENOUS TO THE DATA LINK LAYER THAT CONTAINS ENOUGH INFORMATION TO MAKE SURE THE DATA CAN BE SUCCESSFULLY SENT ACROSS A LOCAL AREA NETWORK TO ITS DESTINATION. THE DATA LINK LAYER IS ALSO RESPONSIBLE FOR REASSEMBLING ANY BINARY STREAMS THAT ARE RECEIVED FROM THE PHYSICAL LAYER BACK INTO FRAMES. DATA LINK LAYER IS NOT REALLY REBUILDING A FRAME. RATHER, ITS BUFFERING THE INCOMING BITS UNTIL IT HAS A COMPLETE FRAME.

LAYER 3 NETWORK LAYER

THE NETWORK LAYER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR ESTABLISHING

THE ROUTE TO BE USED BETWEEN THE ORIGINATING AND DESTINATION COMPUTERS. THE NETWORK LAYER IS USED TO ESTABLISH COMMUNICATIONS WITH COMPUTER SYSTEMS THAT LIE BEYOND THE LOCAL LAN SEGMENT. IT CAN DO SO BECAUSE IT HAS ITS OWN ROUTING ADDRESSING ARCHITECTURE, WHICH IS SEPARATE AND DISTINCT FROM THE LAYER 2 MACHINE ADDRESSING. ROUTED PROTOCOLS INCLUDE: IP IPX ROUTING PROTOCOLS INCLUDE: RIP OSPF

LAYER 4 TRANSPORT LAYER

THE TRANSPORT LAYER PROVIDES A SERVICE

SIMILAR TO THE DATA LINK LAYER IN THAT IT IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE END TO END INTEGRITY OF TRNSMISSIONS. UNLIKE THE DATA LINK LAYER, THE TRANSPORT LAYER IS CAPABLE OF PROVIDING THIS FUNCTION BEYOND THE LOCAL LAN SEGMENT. IT CAN DETECT PACKETS THAT ARE DISCARDED BY ROUTERS AND AUTOMATICALLY GENERATE A RETRANSMIT REQUEST. ANOTHER SIGNIFICANT FUNCTION OF THE TRANSPORT LAYER IS THE RESEQUENCING OF PACKETS THAT MAY ARRIVED OUT OF ORDER.

LAYER 5 SESSION LAYER

THE FIFTH LAYER OF OSI MODEL IS CALLED

SESSION LAYER. THIS LAYER MANAGES THE FLOW OF COMMUNICATIONS DURING A CONNECTION BETWEEN TWO COMPUTER SYSTEMS. THIS FLOW OF COMMUNICATIONS IS KNOWN AS SESSION. IT DETERMINES WHETHER COMMUNICATIONS CAN BE UNI- OR BI DIRECTIONAL. IT ALSO ENSURES THAT ONE REQUEST IS COMPLETED BEFORE A NEW ONE IS ACCEPTED.

LAYER 6 PRESENTATION LAYER

THE PRESENTATION LAYER IS RESPONSIBLE

FOR MANAGING THE WAY DATA IS ENCODED. NOT EVERY COMPUTER SYSTEM USES THE SAME DATA-ENCODING SCHEME, AND THE PRESENTATION LAYER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR PROVIDING THE TRANSLATION BETWEEN OTHERWISE INCOMPATIBLE DATA-ENCODING SCHEMES, SUCH AS ASCII AND EBCDIC.

LAYER 7 APPLICATION LAYER

THE TOP LAYER OF OSI MODEL IS APPLICATION

LAYER. IT PROVIDES INTERFACE BETWEEN USER APPLICATIONS AND THE NETWORKS SERVICES. THIS LAYER CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS THE REASON FOR INITIATING THE COMMUNICATIONS SESSION. FOR EXAMPLE, AN E-MAIL CLIENT MIGHT GENERATE A REQUEST TO RETRIEVE NEW MESSAGES FROM THE EMAIL SERVER. THIS CLIENT APPLICATION AUTOMATICALLY GENERATES A REQUEST TO THE APPROPRIATE LAYER 7 PROTOCOLS AND LAUNCHES A COMMUNICATIONS SESSION TO GET THE NEEDED FILES.

Classification of Networks
Classification by network geography.

Classification by component roles.

Classification by Network Geography

Networks are frequently classified according

to the geographical boundaries spanned by the network itself. LAN, WAN, and MAN are the basic types of classification, of which LAN and WAN are frequently used.

Classification by Network Geography

Local area network (LAN):

A LAN covers a relatively small area such as a classroom, school, or a single building. LANs are inexpensive to install and also provide higher speeds.

Classification by Network Geography

Local area network

Classification by Network Geography

Metropolitan area network (MAN):

A MAN spans the distance of a typical metropolitan city. The cost of installation and operation is higher. MANs use high-speed connections such as fiber optics to achieve higher speeds.

Classification by Network Geography

Metropolitan area network

Classification by Network Geography

Wide area network (WAN):

WANs span a larger area than a single city. These use long distance telecommunication networks for connection, thereby increasing the cost. The Internet is a good example of a WAN.

Classification by Network Geography

Wide area network

Classification by Component Roles

Networks can also be classified according to

the roles that the networked computers play in the networks operation. Peer-to-peer, server-client-based are the types of roles into which networks are classified.

Classification by Component Roles

Peer-to-peer:

In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal.

Each computer controls its own information and is capable of functioning as either a client or a server depending upon the requirement.

Peer-to-peer networks are inexpensive and easy to install.

They are popular as home networks and for use in small

companies.

Classification by Component Roles

Peer-to-peer (continued):

Most operating systems come with built-in peer-to-peer networking capability. Each peer shares resources and allows others open access to them.

Classification by Component Roles

Peer-to-peer (continued):

Peer-to-peer networks become difficult to manage when more security is added to resources, since the users control their security by password-protecting shares. Shares can be document folders, printers, peripherals, and any other resource that they control on their computers.

Classification by Component Roles

Peer-to-peer network

Classification by Component Roles

Server-Client based:

A server-based network offers centralized control and is designed for secure operations. In a server-based network, a dedicated server controls the network.

Classification by Component Roles

Server-Client based (continued):

A dedicated server is one that services the network by storing data, applications, resources, and also provides access to resources required by the client. These servers can also control the networks security from one centralized location or share it with other specially configured servers.

Classification by Component Roles

Server-client based network

NETWORKING COMPONETS

Networking Hardware Components

A Network is comprised of a variety of hardware components: Transmission Media Interface Cards Hubs Switches Routers

Internet

Firewall

Router
Switch (Siliguri office) Hub (sales) Hub (sales)

Router
Switch (Kolkata office)

LAN Transmission Media

Central Copper Conduit Plastic Insulating Jacket Twisted Pair

Plastic insulating jacket Non-conducting insulator

Coaxial Cable Woven Metal Shield

LED or Laser Transmitter Central Copper Conduit

Photodiode Receiver
Fiber Optic

Glass or Plastic Fiber Cable

Ethernet Media Types

Sending and receiving Ethernet frames via a hub

3333 1111 1111

2222

5555

So, what does a hub do when it receives information? Remember, a hub is nothing more than a multiport repeater.

3333

4444

Sending and receiving Ethernet frames via a hub

Hub or

Sending and receiving Ethernet frames via a hub

3333 1111

The hub will flood it out all ports except for the incoming port. Hub is a layer 1 device. Disadvantage with hubs: A hub or series of hubs is a single collision domain. A collision will occur if any two or more devices transmit at the same time within the collision domain. More on this later.

Sending and receiving Ethernet frames via a hub

2222
1111

1111

2222

Another disadvantage with hubs is that it take up unnecessary bandwidth on other links.

5555

Wasted bandwidth

3333

4444

Sending and receiving Ethernet frames via a switch

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 3333 1111 Switches are also known as learning bridges or learning switches. A switch has a source address table in cache (RAM) where it stores source MAC address after it learns about them. A switch receives an Ethernet frame it searches the source address table for the Destination MAC address. If it finds a match, it filters the frame by only sending it out that port. If there is not a match if floods it out all ports.

1111

3333

2222

4444

No Destination Address in table, Flood

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111

3333

1111

How does it learn source MAC addresses? First, the switch will see if the SA (1111) is in its table. If it is, it resets the timer (more in a moment). If it is NOT in the table it adds it, with the port number.

1111

3333

Next, in our scenario, the switch will flood the frame out all other ports, because the DA is not in the source address table.

2222

4444

Destination Address in table, Filter

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111 6 3333

1111 3333 Most communications involve some sort of client-server relationship or exchange of information. Now 3333 sends data back to 1111. The switch sees if it has the SA stored. It does NOT so it adds it. (This will help next time 1111 sends to 3333.) Next, it checks the DA and in our case it can filter the frame, by sending it only out port 1.

1111 3333

2222

4444

Destination Address in table, Filter

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111 6 3333 3333 1111

switch
1111 3333

Now, because both MAC addresses are in the switchs table, any information exchanged between 1111 and 3333 can be sent (filtered) out the appropriate port. What happens when two devices send to same destination? What if this was a hub? Where is (are) the collision domain(s) in this example?

1111
Abbreviated MAC addresses

3333

2222

4444

No Collisions in Switch, Buffering

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111 6 3333 9 4444 3333 1111

switch
3333 4444

1111
Abbreviated MAC addresses

3333

2222 4444

Unlike a hub, a collision does NOT occur, which would cause the two PCs to have to retransmit the frames. Instead the switch buffers the frames and sends them out port

What happens here?

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111 6 3333 1 2222 1 5555 1111 3333

Collision Domain

3333 1111 2222 5555

Using Hubs
Layer 1 devices Inexpensive In one port, out the others One collision domain One broadcast domain

Using Switches
Layer 2 devices Layer 2 filtering based on Destination MAC addresses and Source Address Table One collision domain per port One broadcast domain across all switches

Routers

Router

Router Router

Router

Routers Routers use IP addresses to route data between networks. Routers can be used to connect different network types. Routers dont forward broadcast packets; broadcast packets are dropped.

LAN Topologies

Ring

Bus

A LANs Physical Topology: Star Hub Describes how a network is physically cabled. A LANs Logical Topology: Describes the logical pathway a signal follows as it passes among the network nodes.

TCP/IP

TCP/IP is an industry standard set of protocols developed by the U.S. Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1969. It maps TCP/IP protocols to a four-layer conceptual model known as the DARPA model. It is often compared to the still born OSI Protocol Layers. The four layers of the DARPA model are: 1.Application, 2.Transport, 3.Internet, 4.Network Interface

Application layer Refers to standard network services like http, ftp, telnet as well as communication methods used by various application programs Also defines compatible representation of all data Transport layer Manages the transfer of data by using connection oriented (TCP) and connectionless (UDP) transport protocols Manages the connections between networked applications Internet layer Manages addressing of packets and delivery of packets between networks Fragments packets so that they can be dealt with by lower level layer (Network Interface layer Network) Network Interface layer Delivers data via physical link (Ethernet is the most common link level protocol ) Provides error detection and packet framing

TCP/IP functions

Establish a connection between nodes Manage data flow on the network Handle transmission errors Terminate connection at the end TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, meaning that a packet sent to the next node is monitored for proper receipt IP is a connection-less protocol, meaning that a packet sent to the next node is not monitored for proper delivery Since TCP and IP work together, the packet delivery is reliable Connection-less mode is known as User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Application Layer The Application layer provides applications the ability to access the services of the other layers and defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data. There are many Application layer protocols and new protocols are always being developed. The most widely-known Application layer protocols are those used for the exchange of user information: The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to transfer files that make up the Web pages of the World Wide Web. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for interactive file transfer. The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for the transfer of mail messages and attachments. Telnet, a terminal emulation protocol, is used for logging on remotely to network hosts. Additionally, the following Application layer protocols help facilitate the use and management of TCP/IP networks: The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to resolve a host name to an IP address. The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a routing protocol that routers use to exchange routing information. The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used between a network management console and network devices (routers, bridges, intelligent hubs) to collect and exchange network management information. Examples of Application layer interfaces for TCP/IP applications are Sockets and NetBIOS. Sockets provides a standard application programming interface (API) for interprocess communication via TCP/IP. NetBIOS is an industry standard interface for accessing protocol services such as sessions, datagrams, and name resolution.

Transport Layer

Transport layer (also known as the Host-to-Host Transport layer) is responsible for providing the Application layer with session and datagram communication services. The core protocols of the Transport layer are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Either of these two protocols are used by the application layer process, the choice depends on the application's transmission reliability requirements. The mechanisms used by the Transport layer to determine whether data has been correctly delivered are: Acknowledgement responses Sequencing Flow control The Transport layer facilitates end-to-end data transfer. It supports multiple operations simultaneously. The layer is implemented by two protocols: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP uses packets called segments, while UDP uses packets called datagrams. Both TCP and UDP are encapsulated inside Internet layer datagrams for transmission to the next node.
The

The Transport layer facilitates two types of communication: Connection-oriented (TCP) A connection must be established at the Transport layer of both systems before the application can transmit any data. Connectionless (UDP) All systems do not need to establish a connection with the recipient prior to data exchange. TCP is a more reliable form of data exchange than UDP. TCP and UDP: TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol that provides error checking and flow control through a virtual link that it establishes and finally terminates. TCP is responsible for the establishment of a TCP connection (TCP handshake), the sequencing and acknowledgment of packets sent, and the recovery of packets lost during transmission. UDP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol that provides data transport with lower network traffic overheads than TCP. UDP is used when the amount of data to be transferred is small (such as the data that would fit into a single packet), or when the overhead of establishing a TCP connection is not desired or when the applications or upper layer protocols provide reliable delivery. UDP does not error check or offer any flow control, this is left to the application process. Still it can be used by protocols that provide reliable packet transmission like NFS. The Transport layer encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI Transport layer and some of the responsibilities of the OSI Session layer.

Internet Layer
This layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing functions. It allows communication across networks of the same and different types and carries out translations to deal with dissimilar data addressing schemes. The core protocols of the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible for IP addressing, routing, and the fragmentation and reassembly of packets. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for the resolution of the Internet layer address to the Network Interface layer address such as a hardware address. The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is responsible for providing diagnostic functions and reporting errors due to the unsuccessful delivery of IP packets. The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is responsible for the management of IP multicast groups. The Internet layer is analogous to the Network layer of the OSI model.

Network Interface Layer

The Network Interface layer (also called the Network Access layer) is responsible for placing TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets off the network medium. TCP/IP was designed to be independent of the network access method, frame format, and medium. In this way, TCP/IP can be used to connect differing network types. This layer include LAN technologies such as Ethernet and Token Ring and WAN technologies such as X.25 and Frame Relay. Independence from any specific network technology gives TCP/IP the ability to be adapted to new technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). It consists of combination of datalink and physical layers deals with pure hardware (wires, satellite links, network interface cards, etc.) and access methods such as CSMA/CD (carrier sensed multiple access with collision detection). Ethernet is the most popular network access layer protocol. Its hardware operates at the physical layer and its medium access control method (CSMA/CD) operates at the datalink layer. . The Network Interface layer encompasses the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model. Note that the Internet layer does not take advantage of sequencing and acknowledgment services that might be present in the Data-Link layer. An unreliable Network Interface layer is assumed, and reliable communications through session establishment and the sequencing and acknowledgment of packets is the responsibility of the Transport layer.

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