Introduction to

DSL

Yaakov J. Stein Chief Scientist RAD Data Communications

Stein Intro DSL 1

PSTN

Stein Intro DSL 2

Original PSTN

UTP

UTP

Manual switching directly connected two local loops

Due to microphone technology, audio BW was 4 kHz

Stein Intro DSL 3

Analog switched PSTN

Invention of tube amplifier enabled long distance Between central offices used FDM spaced at 4 kHz
(each cable carrying 1 group = 12 channels)

Developed into hierarchical network of automatic switches

(with supergroups, master groups, supermaster groups)

Stein Intro DSL 4

Data supported via voice-grade modems

UTP

modem

modem

To send data, it is converted into 4 kHz audio (modem) Data rate is determined by Shannon's capacity theorem
there is a maximum data rate (bps) called the "capacity" that can be reliably sent through the communications channel the capacity depends on the BW and SNR In Shannon's days it worked out to about 25 kbps today it is about 35 kbps (V.34 modem - 33.6 kbps)
Stein Intro DSL 5

Digital PSTN
CO SWITCH

last mile

TDM

analog
last mile Subscriber Line

PSTN

digital
TDM

CO SWITCH

LP filter to 4 kHz at input to CO switch (before A/D)

Stein Intro DSL 6

Digital PSTN
Sample 4 kHz audio at 8 kHz (Nyquist) Need 8 bits per sample = 64 kbps
Multiplexing 64 kbps channels leads to higher and higher rates

Only the subscriber line (local loop) remains analog

(too expensive to replace)

Can switch (cross connect) large number of channels Noise and distortion could be eliminated due to Shannon's theorems 1. Separation theorem 2. Source coding theorem 3. Channel capacity theorem
Stein Intro DSL 7

Voice-grade modems still work over new PSTN

CO SWITCH

PSTN

UTP subscriber line

modem

CO SWITCH

modem
network/ ISP

But data rates do not increase ! Simulate analog channel so can achieve Shannon rate < native 64 kbps rate

Internet

router

Stein Intro DSL 8

Where is the limitation ?

The digital network was developed incrementally No forklift upgrades to telephones, subscriber lines, etc. Evolutionary deployment meant that the new network needed to simulate pre-existing analog network So a 4 kHz analog channel is presented to subscriber The 4 kHz limitation is enforced by LP filter at input to CO switch (before 8 kHz sampling) The actual subscriber line is not limited to 4 kHz Is there a better way to use the subscriber line for digital transmissions ?
Stein Intro DSL 9

UTP

Stein Intro DSL 10

What is UTP?
The achievable data rate is limited by physics of the subscriber line The subscriber line is an Unshielded Twisted Pair of copper wires

Two plastic insulated copper wires

Two directions over single pair Twisted to reduce crosstalk Supplies DC power and audio signal Physically, UTP is distributed resistances in series distributed inductances in series distributed capacitances in parallel so the attenuation increases with frequency

Various other problems exist (splices, loading coils, etc.)

Stein Intro DSL 11

UTP characteristics

Resistance per unit distance Capacitance per unit distance Inductance per unit distance Cross-admittance (assume pure reactive) per unit distance
X

Stein Intro DSL 12

UTP resistance
Influenced by gauge, copper purity, temperature Resistance is per unit distance

24 gauge 0.15 W/kft 26 gauge 0.195 W/kft

Skin effect: Resistance increases with frequency Theoretical result R~f

1/2

In practice this is a good approximation

Stein Intro DSL 13

UTP capacitance
Capacitance depends on interconductor insulation About 15.7 nF per kft Only weakly dependent on gauge Independent of frequency to high degree

Stein Intro DSL 14

UTP inductance
Higher for higher gauge 24 gauge 0.188 mH per kft 26 gauge 0.205 mH per kft Constant below about 10 kHz

Drops slowly above

Stein Intro DSL 15

UTP admittance
Insulation good so no resistive admittance Admittance due to capacitive and inductive coupling Self-admittance can usually be neglected

Cross admittance causes cross-talk!

Stein Intro DSL 16

Propagation loss
Voltage decreases as travel along cable Each new section of cable reduces voltage by a factor 1v 1/2 v 1/4 v

So the decrease is exponential

Va / Vb = e -g x = H(f,x)
where x is distance between points a and b

We can calculate g, and hence loss, directly from RCLG model

Stein Intro DSL 17

Attenuation vs. frequency

24 AWG 26 AWG

Stein Intro DSL 18

Why twisted?
from Alexander Graham Bells 1881 patent

To place the direct and return lines close together.

To twist the direct and return lines around one another so that they should be absolutely equidistant from the disturbing wires

n
a V = (a+n) - (b+n)

Stein Intro DSL 19

Why twisted? - continued

So don't need shielding, at least for audio (low) frequencies But at higher frequencies UTP has cross-talk
George Cambell was the first to model
a

(see BSTJ 14(4) Oct 1935)

b Lbc Cbc c Cbd Lad

Cross-talk due to capacitive and/or inductive mismatch |I2| = Q f V1 where Q ~ (Cbc-Cbd) or Q~(Lbc-Lad)

Stein Intro DSL 20

Loading coils
Long loops have loading coils to prevent voice distortion What does a loading coil do?

Flattens response in voice band

Attenuates strongly above voice frequencies

loops longer than 18 kft need loading coils 88 mH every 6kft starting 3kft
Stein Intro DSL 21

Bridge taps
There may also be bridged taps Parallel run of unterminated UTP

unused piece left over from old installation placed for subscriber flexibility

High frequency signals are reflected from the open end

A bridged tap can act like a notch filter!

Stein Intro DSL 22

Other problems
Splices Subscriber lines are seldom single runs of cable
In the US, UTP usually comes in 500 ft lengths So splices must be made every 500 ft Average line has >20 splices Splices are pressure connections that add to attenuation Over time they corrode and may spark, become intermittent, etc.

Gauge changes
US binder groups typically start off at 26 AWG Change to 24 AWG after 10 kft In rural areas they may change to 19 AWG after that

Stein Intro DSL 23

Binder groups
UTP are not placed under/over ground individually In central offices they are in cable bundles with 100s of other UTP In the outside plant they are in binder groups

with 25 or 50 pairs per group

We will see that these pairs interfere with each other a phenomenon called cross-talk (XTALK)

Stein Intro DSL 24

CSA guidelines
1981 AT&T Carrier Service Area guidelines advise as follows for new deployments No loading coils Maximum of 9 kft of 26 gauge (including bridged taps) Maximum of 12 kft of 24 gauge (including bridged taps) Maximum of 2.5 kft bridged taps Maximum single bridged tap 2 kft Suggested: no more than 2 gauges

In 1991 more than 60% of US lines met CSA requirements

Stein Intro DSL 25

Present US PSTN
UTP only in the last mile (subscriber line)

70% unloaded < 18kft 15% loaded > 18kft 15% optical or digital to remote terminal + DA (distribution area)

PIC, 19, 22, 24, 26 gauge Built for 2W 4 KHz audio bandwidth

DC used for powering

Above 100KHz:

severe attenuation cross-talk in binder groups (25 - 1000 UTP) lack of intermanufacturer consistency

Stein Intro DSL 26

Present US PSTN - continued

We will see, that for DSL - basically four cases

Resistance design > 18Kft loaded line - no DSL possible Resistance design unloaded <18 Kft <1300 W - ADSL CSA reach - HDSL DA (distribution area) 3-5 kft - VDSL

Higher rate - lower reach (because of attenuation and noise!)

Stein Intro DSL 27

xDSL

Stein Intro DSL 28

Alternatives for data services

Fiber, coax, HFC COST: $10k-$20k / mile

TIME: months to install

T1/E1 COST: >$5k/mile for conditioning

TIME: weeks to install

DSL COST: @ 0 (just equipment price)

TIME: @ 0 (just setup time)

Stein Intro DSL 29

xDSL
Need higher speed digital connection to subscribers

Not feasible to replace UTP in the last mile

Older voice grade modems assume 4kHz analog line Newer (V.90) modems assume 64kbps digital line DSL modems dont assume anything Use whatever the physics of the UTP allows

Stein Intro DSL 30

xDSL System Reference Model

Analog modem
network/ ISP

CO SWITCH

PSTN
POTS-C POTS-R

POTS SPLITTER

UTP

POTS SPLITTER

PDN

router

WAN

DSLAM xTU-C x = H, A, V, ...

xTU-R

POTS
DC 4 kHz

xDSL

frequency
Stein Intro DSL 31

Splitter
Splitter separates POTS from DSL signals

Must guarantee lifeline POTS services! Hence usually passive filter Must block impulse noise (e.g. ring) from phone into DSL

ADSLforum/T1E1.4 specified that splitter be separate from modem No interface specification (but can buy splitter and modem from different vendors) Splitter requires installation Costly technician visit is the major impediment to deployment ADSL has splitterless versions to facilitate residential deployment

Stein Intro DSL 32

Why is DSL better than a voice-grade modem?

Analog telephony modems are limited to 4 KHz bandwidth Shannons channel capacity theorem gives the maximum transfer rate N

for SNR >> 1

C = BW log2 ( SNR + 1 )

C(bits/Hz) SNR(dB) / 3

So by using more BW we can get higher transfer rates! But what is the BW of UTP?

Stein Intro DSL 33

Maximum reach
To use Shannon's capacity theorem we need to know how much noise there is One type of noise that is always present
(above absolute zero temperature) is thermal noise

Maximum reach is the length of cable for reliable communications ASSUMING ONLY THERMAL NOISE

Bellcore study in residential areas (NJ) found

-140 dBm / Hz white (i.e. independent of frequency)

is a good approximation We can compute the maximum reach from known UTP attenuation

Stein Intro DSL 34

xDSL - Maximum Reach

Stein Intro DSL 35

Other sources of noise

But real systems have other sources of noise, and thus the SNR will be lower and thus will have lower reach There are three other commonly encountered types of noise

RF ingress
Near End Cross Talk (NEXT) Far End Cross Talk (FEXT)

Stein Intro DSL 36

Sources of Interference

XMTR RCVR
NEXT

RCVR XMTR
FEXT

THERMAL NOISE

RCVR XMTR
RF INGRESS

XMTR RCVR

Stein Intro DSL 37

Ungers discovery
What happens with multiple sources of cross-talk? Unger (Bellcore) : 1% worst case NEXT

(T1D1.3 185-244)

50 pair binders 22 gauge PIC 18 Kft

Found empirically that cross-talk only increases as N0.6

This is because extra interferers must be further away

Stein Intro DSL 38

NEXT
Only close points are important

Distant points are twice attenuated by line attenuation |H(f,x)|2

Unger dependence on number of interferers

Frequency dependence

Transfer function ~ I2Campbell / R ~ f 2 / f 1/2 = f 3/2 Power spectrum of transmission

Total NEXT interference (noise power)

KNEXT N0.6 f 3/2 PSD(f)

Stein Intro DSL 39

FEXT
Entire parallel distance important

Thus there will be a linear dependence on L

Unger dependence on number of interferers

Frequency dependence

Transfer function ~ I2Campbell ~ f 2 Power spectrum of transmission

Total FEXT interference (noise power)

KFEXT N0.6 L f2 |Hchannel(f)|2 PSD(f)

Stein Intro DSL 40

Example - Interference spectrum

Stein Intro DSL 41

Examples of Realistic Reach

More realistic design goals (splices, some xtalk)

1.5 Mbps 2 Mbps 6 Mbps 10 Mbps 26 Mbps 52 Mbps

18 Kft 16 Kft 12 Kft 7 Kft 3 Kft 1 Kft

5.5 km 5 km 3.5 km 2 km 1.4 km 900 m

(80% US loops)

(CSA 50% US loops)

13 Mbps 4.5 Kft

300 m (SONET

STS-1 = 1/3 STM-1)

Stein Intro DSL 42

Bonding (inverse mux)

If we need more BW than attainable by Shannon bounds we can use more than one UTP pair (although XT may reduce)

This is called bonding or inverse multiplexing

There are many ways of using multiple pairs:

ATM - extension of IMA (may be different rates per pair)

ATM cells marked with SID and sent on any pair

Ethernet - based on 802.3(EFM)

frames are fragmented, marked with SN, and sent on many pairs

Time division inverse mux Dynamic Spectral Management (Cioffi) Ethernet link aggregation

Stein Intro DSL 43

Duplexing
Up to now we assumed that only one side transmits Bidirectional (full duplex) transmission requires some form of duplexing
For asymmetric applications we usually speak of DS downstream and US upstream Four methods are in common use:

Half duplex mode (4W mode) (as in E1/T1) Echo cancellation mode (ECH) Time Domain Duplexing (requires syncing all binder contents) Frequency Domain Duplexing
POTS
DC 4 kHz
Stein Intro DSL 44

US

DS

frequency

Muxing, inverse muxing, duplexing

multiplexing
inverse multiplexing

data streams

physical line

data stream

physical lines

Duplexing = 2 data streams in 2 directions on 1 physical line Multiplexing = N data streams in 1 direction on 1 physical line Inverse multiplexing = 1 data stream in 1 direction on N physical lines
duplexing

Stein Intro DSL 45

(Adaptive) echo cancellation

Signal transmitted is known to transmitter It is delayed, attenuated and distorted in the round-trip Using adaptive DSP algorithms we can find the delay/attenuation/distortion subtract
modulator

4W to 2W HYBRID

demodulator

Stein Intro DSL 46

xDSL types and history

Stein Intro DSL 47

DSL Flavors
DSL is often called xDSL since there are many varieties (different x) e.g. ADSL, HDSL, SHDSL, VDSL, IDSL, etc. There were once many unconnected types but now we divide them into three main families The differentiation is by means of the application scenario

HDSL (symmetric, mainly business, data + telephony) ADSL (asymmetric, mainly residential, Internet access) VDSL (very high rate, but short distance)

Stein Intro DSL 48

PSD(dBm/Hz)

Some xDSL PSDs

T1 IDSL HDSL HDSL2 ADSL

F(MHz)

Stein Intro DSL 49

ITU G.99x standards

G.991 HDSL (G.991.1 HDSL G.992 ADSL (G.992.1 ADSL

G.992.3 ADSL2 G.992.5 ADSL2+)

G.991.2 SHDSL) G.992.2 splitterless ADSL G.992.4 splitterless ADSL2

G.993 VDSL (G.993.1 VDSL G.994 HANDSHAKE G.995 GENERAL (INFO) G.996 TEST G.997 PLOAM G.998 bonding (G.998.1 ATM

G.993.2 VDSL2)

G.998.2 Ethernet G.998.3 TDIM)

Stein Intro DSL 50

ITU xDSL layer model

Transport protocol (ATM, STM, PTM) Transport Protocol Specific - Transmission Convergence (TPS-TC)

Physical Medium Specific - Transmission Convergence (PMS-TC)

Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) Physical medium

Stein Intro DSL 51

More xDSL flavors

modem IDSL speed 160 (144) Kbps reach 5.5 km main applications POTS replacement, videoconferencing, Internet access T1/E1 replacement PBX interconnect, FR same as HDSL same as HDSL same as HDSL

HDSL

2 Mbps (4-6W)

3.6-4.5 km

HDSL2 SHDSL SHDSLbis

2 Mbps (2W) 2.3 Mbps 4.6 Mbps

3 km 3 km 3 km

Stein Intro DSL 52

More xDSL flavors (cont.)

modem ADSL ADSL2 ADSL2+ VDSL speed 6 Mbps DS 640 Kbps US 8 Mbps DS 800 Kbps US 16 Mbps DS 800 Kbps US <= 52 Mbps reach 3.5-5.5 km > ADSL < 2 km 300m - 1 km main applications residential Internet, video-on-demand Internet access, VoIP LAN interconnect, HDTV, combined services residential Internet residential networking
Stein Intro DSL 53

VDSL2 cable modem HPNA

200 Mbps (aggregate) 10-30Mbps DS shared 1, 10 Mbps

up to 1.8 km 50 km home wiring

Not DSL

T1 service (not DSL)

1963: Coax deployment of T1

2 groups in digital TDM AMI line code Beyond CSA range should use DLC (direct loop carrier) Repeaters every 6 Kft Made possible by Bell Labs invention of the transistor

1971: UTP deployment of T1 (but still not DSL)

Bring 1.544 Mbps to customer private lines Use two UTP in half duplex mode Requires expensive line conditioning One T1 per binder group

Stein Intro DSL 54

T1 line conditioning
In order for a subscribers line to carry T1

Single gauge CSA range No loading coils No bridged taps Repeaters every 6 Kft (starting 3 Kft) One T1 per binder group Labor intensive (expensive) process Need something better (DSL)

Stein Intro DSL 55

The first true xDSL!

1984,88: IDSL BRI access for ISDN 4B3T (3 level PAM) or 2B1Q (4 level PAM) modulation Prevalent in Europe, never really caught on in US 144 Kbps over CSA range

ITU-T G.961 describes IDSL There are 4 appendices: Appendix I - 4B3T (AKA MMS43) Appendix II - 2B1Q Appendix III - AMI Time Compression Multiplex (TDD) Appendix IV - SU32 (3B2T + ECH)
Stein Intro DSL 56

HDSL - NA improved copy of IDSL

1991: HDSL Replaced T1/E1 service, but full CSA distance w/o line conditioning / repeaters AMI line code replaced with IDSL's 2B1Q line code Use 2 UTP pairs, but in ECH mode (DFE) For T1 784 kbps on each pair For E1, 1, 2, 3 and 4 pair modes (all ECH) Requires DSP for echo cancellation Mature DSL technology, now becoming obsolete

Stein Intro DSL 57

HDSL2
With the success of HDSL, customers requested HDSL service that would : require only a single UTP HDSL attain at least full CSA reach be spectrally compatible w/ HDSL, T1, ADSL, etc.

The result, based on high order PAM, was called

HDSL2 (ANSI) SDSL Symmetric DSL (ETSI)

and is now called

SHDSL Single pair HDSL (ITU)

Stein Intro DSL 58

SHDSL
Uses Trellis Coded 16-PAM with various shaping options Does not co-exist with POTS service on UTP Can uses regenerators for extended reach single-pair operation 192 kbps to 2.312 Mbps in steps of 8 kbps 2.3 Mbps should be achieved for reaches up to 3.5 km dual-pair operation (4-wire mode) 384 kbps to 4.608 Mbps in steps of 16 kbps line rate is the same on both pairs Latest standard (G.shdsl.bis - G.991.2 2003 version) bonding up to 4 pairs rates up to 5696 kbps optional 32-PAM (instead of 16-PAM) dynamic rate repartitioning
Stein Intro DSL 59

ADSL
Asymmetric - high rate DS, lower rate US Originally designed for video on demand

New modulation type - Discrete MultiTone

FDD and ECH modes Almost retired due to lack of interest but then came the Internet Studies - DS:US for both applications can be about 10:1

Some say ADSL could mean

All Data Subscribers Living
Stein Intro DSL 60

Why asymmetry?
NEXT is the worst interferer stops HDSL from achieving higher rates

FEXT much less (attenuated by line)

FDD eliminates NEXT All modems must transmit in the SAME direction A reversal would bring all ADSL modems down Upstream(US) at lower frequencies and power density Downstream (DS) at high frequencies and power

Stein Intro DSL 61

ADSL Duplexing

US uses low DMT tones (e.g. 8 - 32) If over POTS / ISDN lowest frequencies reserved

DS uses higher tones

If FDD no overlap If ECH DS overlaps US

P O T S

US

DS

G.992.1 FDD mode

32

256

* 4.3125 kHz
Stein Intro DSL 62

Why asymmetry? - continued

PSD (dBm/Hz)

US

DS

F(MHz)

Stein Intro DSL 63

Echo cancelled ADSL

FDD gives sweet low frequencies to US only and the sharp filters enhance ISI By overlapping DS on US we can use low frequencies and so increase reach Power spectral density chart

Stein Intro DSL 64

ADSL - continued
ADSL system design criterion BER 10-12
(1 error every 2 days at 6 Mbps)

Raw modem can not attain this low a BER! For video on demand: RS and interleaving can deliver (error bursts of 500 msec) but add 17 msec delay For Internet: TCP can deliver high raw delay problematic So the G.992.1 standard defines TWO framers fast (noninterleaved ) and slow (interleaved) buffers

Stein Intro DSL 65

ADSL standard
ITU (G.dmt) G.992.1, ANSI T1.413i2 standard
DS - 6.144 Mbps (minimum) US- 640 kbps First ADSL data implementations were CAP (QAM)

ITU/ANSI/ETSI standards are DMT with spacing of 4.3125 kHz

DMT allows approaching water pouring capacity DMT is robust DMT requires more complex processing DMT may require more power

Stein Intro DSL 66

Splitterless ADSL
Splitterless ADSL, UAWG, G.lite, G.992.2, G.992.4
Splitterless operation fast retrain power management to eliminate clipping initialization includes probing telephone sets for power level microfilters modems usually store environment parameters G.992.2 - cost reduction features

G.992.1 compatible DMT compatible using only 128 tones 512 Kbps US / 1.5 Mbps DS (still >> V.34 or V.90 modems) features removed for simplicity simpler implementation (only 500 MIPS < 2000 MIPS for full rate)
Stein Intro DSL 67

ADSL2
ADSL uses BW from 20 kHz to 1.1 MHz ADSL2 Increases rate/reach of ADSL by using 20 kHz - 4.4 MHz Also numerous efficiency improvements better modulation reduced framing overhead more flexible format (see next slide) stronger FEC reduced power mode misc. algorithmic improvements for given rate, reach improved by 200 m 3 user data types - STM, ATM and packet (Ethernet) ADSL2+ dramatically increased rate at short distances

Stein Intro DSL 68

More ADSL2 features

Dynamic training features

Bit Swapping (dynamic change of DMT bin bit/power allocations) Seamless Rate Adaptation (dynamic change of overall rate)

Frame bearers

Multiple (up to 4) frame bearers (data flows) Multiple latencies for different frame bearers (FEC/interleave lengths) Dynamic rate repartitioning (between different latencies)

Stein Intro DSL 69

ADSL annexes (G.992.1/3)

Annex A ADSL over POTS Annex B ADSL over 2B1Q/4B3T ISDN Annex C ADSL over TDD ISDN Annex D State diagrams (state machine for idle, (re)training, etc) Annex E Splitters (POTS and ISDN) Annex F North America - classification and performance Annex G Europe - classification (interop options) and performance Annex H Synchronized Symmetric DSL with TDD ISDN in binder

Stein Intro DSL 70

ADSL annexes (G.992.3)

Annex I All digital ADSL (i.e. alone on UTP) with POTS in binder

Annex J All digital ADSL with ISDN in binder Annex K Transmission Protocol Specific functions (STM, ATM, PTM) Annex L Reach Extended ADSL2 over POTS Annex M Extended US BW over POTS

Stein Intro DSL 71

VDSL
Optical network expanding (getting closer to subscriber)
Optical Network Unit ONU at curb or basement cabinet FTTC (curb), FTTB (building) These scenarios usually dictates low power

Rates can be very high since required reach is minimal!

Proposed standard has multiple rates and reaches

Stein Intro DSL 72

VDSL - rate goals

Symmetric rates
6.5 4.5Kft (1.4 Km) 13 3 Kft (900 m) 26 1 Kft (300 m)

Asymmetric rates (US/DS)

0.8/ 6.5 1.6/13 3.2/26 6.4/52 6 Kft 4.5 Kft 3 Kft 1 Kft (1.8 Km) (1.4Km) (900 m) (300 m)

Stein Intro DSL 73

VDSL - Power issues

Basic template is -60 dBm/Hz from 1.1MHz to 20 MHz Notches reduce certain frequencies to -80 dBm/Hz Power boost on increase power to -50 dBm/Hz Power back-off reduces VTU-R power so that wont block another user ADSL compatibility off use spectrum down to 300 KHz

Stein Intro DSL 74

VDSL2
DMT line code (same 4.3125 kHz spacing as ADSL) VDSL uses BW of 1.1 MHz - 12 MHz (spectrally compatible with ADSL) VDSL2 can use 20 kHz - 30 MHz

new band-plans (up to 12 MHz, and 12-30 MHz) increased DS transmit power various algorithmic improvements borrowed improvements from ADSL2 3 user data types - STM, ATM and PTM

Stein Intro DSL 75

VDSL2 band plans

North American bandplan US0 (if present) starts between 4 kHz - 25 kHz and ends between 138-276 kHz

Europe - six band plans (2 A and 4 B) A (998) US0 from 25 DS1 from 138 or 276 US1 3750-5200 DS2 5200-8500 B (997) US0 from 25 or 120 or nonexistent DS1 from 138 or 276 US1 3000-5100 DS2 5100-7050

Stein Intro DSL 76

HPNA (G.PNT)

Studies show that about 50% of US homes have a PC 30% have Internet access, 20% have more than one PC!

Average consumer has trouble with cabling

HomePNA de facto industry standard for home networking

Computers, peripherals interconnect (and connect to Internet?) using internal phone wiring (user side of splitter) Does not interrupt lifeline POTS services Does not require costly or messy LAN wiring of the home Presently 1 Mbps, soon 10 Mbps, eventually 100 Mbps!

Stein Intro DSL 77

Shannon Theory

Stein Intro DSL 78

Shannon - Game plan

Claude Shannon (Bell Labs) 1948 Digital communications never worse than analog and frequently better ! Basic idea:

Analog signals become contaminated by noise Amplification doesn't help - noise is amplified too Bits can not be degraded in a minor way - either 0 or 1 When bit flip - Error Correcting Codes can fix

Rigorous proof:

Source - channel separation theorem Source encoding theorems Channel capacity theorems
Stein Intro DSL 79

Shannon - Separation Theorem

Source channel separation theorem

Separate source coding from channel coding No efficiency loss source encoder channel encoder
channel analog signal

info

bits

channel decoder

bits

source decoder

info

The following are NOT optimal !!!

OSI layers Separation of line code from ECC

Stein Intro DSL 80

Shannon - Channel Capacity

Every bandlimited noisy channel has a capacity Below capacity errorless information reception Above capacity errors

Shocking news to analog engineers Previously thought: only increasing power decreases error rate

But Shannon didnt explain HOW!

Stein Intro DSL 81

Channel Capacity (continued)

Shannons channel capacity theorem:
If no noise (even if narrow BW): Infinite information transferred instantaneously Just send very precise level If infinite bandwidth (even if high noise): No limitation on how fast switch between bits

If both limitations:
C = BW log2 ( SNR + 1 )

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Channel Capacity (continued)

The forgotten part:
All correlations introduce redundancy
Maximal information means nonredundant

The signal that attains channel capacity

looks like white noise filtered to the BW

Stein Intro DSL 83

Channel Capacity (continued)

That was for an ideal low-pass channel

What about a real channel (like DSL)?

Shannon says ...
Simply divide channel into subchannels and integrate

each bandpass channel

obeys regular Shannon law

S log2 (SNR(f) + 1) BW
Only SNR(f) is important !

log2 (SNR(f) + 1) df

Stein Intro DSL 84

Water pouring (Gallager) theorem

Given total amount of energy, N(f) and A(F) how can we maximize the capacity?

N(f) / A(f)

Stein Intro DSL 85

Line Codes

Stein Intro DSL 86

How do modems work?

The simplest attempt is to simply transmit 1 or 0 (volts?)

This is called NRZ (short serial cables, e.g. RS232)

Information rate = number of bits transmitted per second (bps)

Stein Intro DSL 87

The simplest modem - DC

So what about transmitting -1/+1?

This is better, but not perfect!

DC isnt exactly zero Still can have a long run of +1 OR -1 that will decay Even without decay, long runs ruin timing recovery (see below)

Stein Intro DSL 88

The simplest modem - DC

What about RZ?

No long +1 runs, so DC decay not important Still there is DC Half width pulses means twice bandwidth!

Stein Intro DSL 89

The simplest modem - DC

T1 uses AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)

Absolutely no DC! No bandwidth increase!

Stein Intro DSL 90

NRZ - Bandwidth
The PSD (Power Spectral Density) of NRZ is a sinc ( sinc(x) = sin(x) ) x

The first zero is at the bit rate (uncertainty principle) So channel bandwidth limits bit rate DC depends on levels (may be zero or spike)
Stein Intro DSL 91

From NRZ to n-PAM

+1

NRZ

-1

1
+3 +1

4-PAM
(2B1Q)

-1

-3

GRAY CODE 10 => +3 11 => +1 01 => -1 00 => -3

11 10 01 01 00 11 01

GRAY CODE

8-PAM

111

001

010

011

010

000

110

Each level is called a symbol or baud Bit rate = number of bits per symbol * baud rate

100 => +7 101 => +5 111 => +3 110 => +1 010 => -1 011 => -3 001 => -5 000 => -7

Stein Intro DSL 92

PAM - Bandwidth
BW (actually the entire PSD) doesnt change with n !

BAUD RATE

So we should use many bits per symbol But then noise becomes more important
(Shannon strikes again!)

Stein Intro DSL 93

The simplest modem - OOK

Even better - use OOK (On Off Keying)

Absolutely no DC! Based on sinusoid (carrier) Can hear it (morse code)

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OOK - Bandwidth
PSD of -1/+1 NRZ is the same, except there is no DC component If we use OOK the sinc is mixed up to the carrier frequency

(The spike helps in carrier recovery)

Stein Intro DSL 95

ASK
What about Amplitude Shift Keying - ASK ?

2 bits / symbol

11

10

01

01

00

11

01

Generalizes OOK like multilevel PAM did to NRZ Not widely used since hard to differentiate between levels

Is FSK better?

Stein Intro DSL 96

FSK
FSK is based on orthogonality of sinusoids of different frequencies

Make decision only if there is energy at f1 but not at f2 Uncertainty theorem says this requires a long time So FSK is robust but slow (Shannon strikes again!)

f1

f2
Stein Intro DSL 97

PSK
Even better to use sinusoids with different phases!

BPSK
1 bit / symbol

or QPSK
2 bits / symbol Bell 212 2W 1200 bps V.22

11

10

01

01

00

11

01

Stein Intro DSL 98

QAM
Finally, best to use different phases and amplitudes

2 bits per symbol

11

10

01

01

00

11

01

V.22bis 2W full duplex 2400 bps used 16 QAM (4 bits/symbol)

This is getting confusing

Stein Intro DSL 99

The secret math behind it all

The instantaneous representation

x(t) = A(t) cos ( 2 p fc t + f(t) ) A(t) is the instantaneous amplitude f(t) is the instantaneous phase

This obviously includes ASK and PSK as special cases

Actually all bandwidth limited signals can be written this way Analog AM, FM and PM FSK changes the derivative of f(t)

The way we defined them A(t) and f(t) are not unique

The canonical pair (Hilbert transform)

Stein Intro DSL 100

The secret math - continued

How can we find the amplitude and phase?

The Hilbert transform is a 90 degree phase shifter

H cos(f(t) ) = sin(f(t) ) Hence

x(t) = A(t) cos ( 2 p fc t + f(t) ) y(t) = H x(t) = A(t) sin ( 2 p fc t + f(t) ) A(t) = x2(t) + y2(t)
x(t)

f(t) = arctan( y(t)

Stein Intro DSL 101

Star watching
For QAM we can draw a diagram with

x and y as axes A is the radius, f the angle

For example, QPSK can be drawn (rotations are time shifts)

Each point represents 2 bits!

Stein Intro DSL 102

QAM constellations
16 QAM
V.22bis 2400 bps

V.29 (4W 9600 bps)

Codex 9600 (V.29)

2W
first non-Bell modem (Carterphone decision)

Adaptive equalizer Reduced PAR constellation Today - 9600 fax! 8PSK

V.27 4W 4800bps Received symbols are not points due to noise and Inter Symbol Interference (ISI removed by equalizer)

Stein Intro DSL 103

QAM constellations (cont)

1664 points

Stein Intro DSL 104

Multicarrier Modulation

NRZ, RZ, etc. have NO carrier PSK, QAM have ONE carrier MCM has MANY carriers Each is essentially an independent, standalone modem Achieve maximum capacity by direct water pouring! PROBLEM Basic FDM requires has Inter Channel Interference To reduce effect require guard frequencies Squanders good bandwidth

Stein Intro DSL 105

OFDM

Subsignals are orthogonal if spaced precisely by the baud rate

Sinc function has zero at center of nearby modem This implies that the signals are orthogonal - no ICI No guard frequencies are needed Dont need N independent modems efficient digital implementation by FFT algorithm

Stein Intro DSL 106

DMT

Measure SNR(f) during initialization Water pour QAM signals according to SNR(f) Each individual signal narrowband --- no ISI Symbol duration > channel impulse response time --- no ISI No equalizer required

Stein Intro DSL 107

DMT - continued
frequency

time
Stein Intro DSL 108

Summary of xDSL Line Codes

PAM IDSL (2B1Q) HDSL SHDSL/HDSL2 (with TCM and optionally OPTIS) SDSL QAM/CAP

proprietary HDSL/ADSL/VDSL

DMT

ADSL ADSL2, ADSL2+ G.lite VDSL2

Stein Intro DSL 109

Misc. Topics in DSL Modem Theory

Stein Intro DSL 110

Bit scrambling
We can get rid of long runs that cause DC at the bit level
out in D D

...

...

Bits randomized for better spectral properties Self synchronizing Original bits can be recovered by descrambler
in D D

...

...

out

Still not perfect! (one to one transformation)

Stein Intro DSL 111

Timing

Proper timing

Provided by separated transmission

uses BW or another UTP

Improper timing

causes extra or missed bits, and bit errors

Stein Intro DSL 112

Timing (baudrate) recovery

How do we recover timing (baud rate) for an NRZ signal?

For clean NRZ - find the GCF of observed time intervals

For noisy signals need to filter

PLL

b=T/t t = a t + (1-a) T/b

How can we recover the timing for a PSK signal?

The amplitude is NOT really constant (energy cut-off) Contains a component at baud rate Sharp filter and appropriate delay

Similarly for QAM

BUT as constellation gets rounder recovery gets harder

Stein Intro DSL 113

Carrier recovery
Need carrier recovery for PSK / QAM signals

How can we recover the carrier of a PSK signal?

X(t) = A(t) cos ( 2 p fc t ) where A(t) = +/- 1 So X2(t) = cos2 ( 2 p fc t )
For QPSK X4(t) eliminates the data and emphasizes the carrier!

Old saying square for baud, to the fourth for carrier

Stein Intro DSL 114

Constellation rotation recovery

How can we recover the rotation of the constellation?
Simply change phase for best match to the expected constellation!

How do we get rid of 90 degree ambiguity?

We cant! We have to live with it!

And the easiest way is to use differential coding!
00
10 11 1 01

DPSK

NPSK Gray code

000 100 110 010 011 111 101 001 000

QAM put the bits on the transitions!

Stein Intro DSL 115

ISI - BW reduction

Stein Intro DSL 116

QAM ISI
The symbols overlap and interfere Constellations become clouds Only previous symbol

Moderate ISI

Severe ISI
Stein Intro DSL 117

Equalizers
ISI is caused by the channel acting like a low-pass filter

Can correct by filtering with inverse filter

modulator

channel filter

equalizer

demodulator

This is called a linear equalizer Can use compromise (ideal low-pass) equalizer plus an adaptive equalizer Usually assume the channel is all-pole so the equalizer is all-zero (FIR) How do we find the equalizer coefficients?

Stein Intro DSL 118

Training equalizers
Basically a system identification problem

Initialize during training using known data (can be reduced to solving linear algebraic equations) Update using decision directed technique (e.g. LMS algorithm) once decisions are reliable Sometimes can also use blind equalization e

e = e (ai)

Stein Intro DSL 119

Equalizers - continued
Noise enhancement
noise

modulator

channel filter

equalizer

demodulator

This is a basic consequence of using a linear filter But we want to get as close to the band edges as possible There are two different ways to fix this problem!

Stein Intro DSL 120

Equalizers - DFE
ISI is previous symbols interfering with subsequent ones

Once we know a symbol (decision directed) we can use it to directly subtract the ISI!
linear equalizer

slicer
feedback filter

out

Slicer is non-linear and so breaks the noise enchancement problem But, there is an error propogation problem!

Stein Intro DSL 121

Equalizers - Tomlinson precoding

Tomlinson equalizes before the noise is added

noise

Tomlinson modulator precoder

channel filter

demodulator

Needs nonlinear modulo operation Needs results of channel probe or DFE coefficients to be forwarded

Stein Intro DSL 122

More on QAM constellations

What is important in a constellation?

The number of points The minimum distance between points

N dmin

The average squared distance from the center E = <r2> The maximum distance from the center R

Usually

Maximum E and R are given bits/symbol = log2 N PAR = R/r Perr is determined mainly by dmin

Stein Intro DSL 123

QAM constellations - slicers

How do we use the constellation plot?

Received point classified to nearest constellation point Each point has associated bits (well thats a lie, but hold on) Sum of errors is the PDSNR

Stein Intro DSL 124

Multidimensional constellations

PAM and PSK constellations are 1D QAM constellations are 2D (use two parameters of signal) By combining A and f of two time instants ... we can create a 4D constellation From N times we can make 2N dimensional constellation!

Why would we want to?

There is more room in higher dimensions!
1D 2 nearest neighbors
How do I draw this?

2D 4 nearest neighbors

ND 2N nearest neighbors!

Stein Intro DSL 125

Trellis coding
Modems still make mistakes Traditionally these were corrected by ECCs (e.g. Reed Solomon) This separation is not optimal Proof: incorrect hard decisions - not obvious where to correct soft decisions - correct symbols with largest error

How can we efficiently integrate demodulation and ECC? This was a hard problem since very few people were expert in ECCs and signal processing

The key is set partitioning

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Set Partitioning - 8PAM

Original First step Final step

Subset 0 Subset 1 00 01 10 11

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Set Partitioning - 8PSK

Stein Intro DSL 128

Trellis coding - continued

If we knew which subset was transmitted, the decision would be easy So we transmit the subset and the point in the subset But we cant afford to make a mistake as to the subset So we protect the subset identifier bits with an ECC

To decode use the Viterbi algorithm (example for 4 states - 2 subsets)

Stein Intro DSL 129

OPTIS Overlapping PAM Transmission with Interlocking Spectra

An single pair HDSL replacement that is spectrally compatible with HDSL and T1 16 level PAM with 517K baud rate very strong (512 state, >5 dB) TCM 1D for low (216 msec) latency (speech) strong DFE
tailored spectra (fits between HDSL and T1) partially overlapped (interlocking) spectra folding (around fb/2) enhances SNR! upstream bump for spectral compatibility

Stein Intro DSL 130

OPTIS - continued

Stein Intro DSL 131

OPTIS - continued

Stein Intro DSL 132

DMT processing
bit handling ((de)framer, CRC, (de)scrambler, RS, (de)interleaver) tone handling (bit load, gain scaling, tone ordering, bit swapping) QAM modem (symbolizer, slicer) signal handling (cyclic prefix insertion/deletion, (I)FFT,
interpolation, PAR reduction)

synchronization (clock recovery) channel handling

(probing and training, echo cancelling, FEQ, TEQ)

Stein Intro DSL 133