Session 9-11

Conflict

Categories of Stressors Affecting Occupational Stress

Extraorganizational Stressors Organizational Stressors

Group Stressors
Individual Stressors

JOB STRESS

12-3

Macrolevel Organizational Stressors

ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES Tight controls Only downward communication Little performance feedback Centralized decision making Lack of participation in decisions Punitive appraisal systems ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES AND STRATEGIES Downsizing Competitive pressures Merit pay plans Rotating work shifts Bureaucratic rules Advanced technology

JOB STRESS
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND DESIGN Centralization and formalization Line-staff conflicts Specialization Role ambiguity and conflict No opportunity for promotion Restrictive, untrusting culture
12-4

WORKING CONDITIONS Crowded work area Noise, heat, or cold Polluted air Strong odor Unsafe, dangerous conditions Poor lighting Physical or mental strain Toxic chemicals or radiation

Profiles Of Type A And Type B Personalities Type A Profile Type B Profile

Is always moving Walks rapidly Eats rapidly Talks rapidly Is impatient Does two things at once Cant cope with leisure time Is obsessed with numbers Measures success by quantity Is aggressive Is competitive Constantly feels under time pressure
12-5

Is not concerned about time Is patient Doesnt brag Plays for fun, not to win Relaxes without guilt Has not pressing deadlines Is mild-mannered Is never in a hurry

Level Of Conflict In Organizational Behavior Macro Organizational

Intergroup
Interpersonal Intraindividual

Micro
CONFLICT
12-6

A Model Of Frustration

Need (deficiency)

Drive (deficiency with direction) Barrier (1) Overt (2) Covert

Goal/ incentive (reduction of the drives and fulfillment of deficiencies)

Frustration Defense mechanisms (1) Aggression (2) Withdrawal (3) Fixation (4) Compromise
12-7

Sources Of Interpersonal Conflict

Personal differences

Information deficiency

Interpersonal Conflict

Role incompatibility
12-8

Environmental stress

Antecedent Conditions For Intergroup Conflict

Competition for resources

Task interdependence

Intergroup Conflict

Jurisdictional ambiguity
12-9

Status struggles

Ways To Manage Prolonged Stress

Exercise

Relaxation

Networking

Individual Coping Strategies

Behavioral self-control

Cognitive therapy
12-10

Contemporary Negotiation Techniques Low-Risk Techniques High-Risk Techniques

Flattery
Addressing the easy point first Silence

Unexpected temper losses

High-bailing Boulewarism (take it or leave it) Waiting until the last moment

Inflated opening position

Oh, poor me

12-11

What is conflictnormally? `A disagreement between people that may be the result of different: Ideas Perspective Priorities Preferences Beliefs Values Goals Organizational structures

 Emotions: What you feel is important

Conflict Involves

Perceptions: What you see at stake

Behaviors: How you act with others

Sources of Conflict.. warning:

1. Ambiguous jurisdictions: `I dont know who has the authority on that issue. 2. Conflict of interest: `He deserved that position rather that person 3. Communication barriers: `They never returned the phone calls. announced.

4. Unresolved prior conflicts: `We always have a problem with SGS lab about the final report. 5. Over dependency of one party: `We will have to wait till the budget is

Conflict defined:
Is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. Is that point in an ongoing activity when an interaction crosses over to become an inter party conflict.

Conflict defined:
Encompasses a wide range of conflicts that people experience in organizations
Incompatibility of goals Differences over interpretations of facts Disagreements based on behavioral expectations.

Misconceptions about Conflict

Harmony is `normal. Conflict is `abnormal. Conflict & disagreements are same. Conflict is the result of `personality problem. Conflict & anger are the same.

Transitions in Conflict Thought:

Traditional View of Conflict: The belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided. Used synonymously as violence, destruction and irrationality.
Seen as caused by : Poor communication Lack of openness Failure to respond to employee needs

 Human Relations View of Conflict:

Transitions in Conflict Thought (contd)

The belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group.
Interactionist View of Conflict:
The belief that conflict is not only a positive force

in a group but that it is absolutely necessary

for a group to perform effectively.

Organizational Conflict:
Conflict is inevitable given the wide range of goals for the different stakeholder in the organization.
Lack of conflict signals that management emphasizes conformity and stifles innovation.

Conflict is good for organizational performance although excessive conflict causes managers to spend too much time achieving their own ends.

Conflict and Unit Performance

Types of Conflict

Functional Conflict
Functional (or constructive) conflict

Results in positive benefits to individuals, the group, or the organization. Likely effects
Important problems surface so they can be

addressed. Causes careful consideration of decisions. Causes reconsideration of decisions. Increases information available for decision making. Provides opportunities for creativity.

Dysfunctional Conflict
Dysfunctional (or destructive) conflict
Works to the disadvantage of individuals, the group, or the organization. Likely effects
Diverts energies. Harms group cohesion. Promotes interpersonal hostilities. Encourages stereotyping

Creates overall negative environment for workers.

Type of Conflict
Task Conflict Conflicts over content and goals of the work.

Relationship Conflict
Conflict based on interpersonal relationships is dysfunctional Process Conflict Conflict over how work gets done- low levels of this conflict are functional

Levels of Conflict
Macro

Organisational
Inter-group Interpersonal

Intraindivid ual Micro

Intraperson Conflict

Conflict due to Frustration

Occurs when a motivated drive is blocked before a person reaches a desired goal. Defense mechanisms Aggression: Theft, violence
Withdrawal apathetic Fixation Rules become ends and the frustrated employee adapts to the barrier Compromise Mid career changes ,seek fulfillment outside the job

Goal Conflict
Arises when a Goal has both positive and negative features or two or more competing goals
Approach-approach conflict- Two or more

positive but mutually exclusive goals

Approach-avoidance conflict Motivated to

approach a goal and the same time avoid it

Avoidance-avoidance conflict Avoid two or

more negative but mutually exclusive goals

Role Conflict and Ambiguity

Role is defined as a position that has expectations evolving from established norms A study of international JVs showed that this conflict is lower when the foreign partner was dominant inversely related to cultural distance

Types of Role conflict

Person and the role between the persons personality and the expectations of the role Intrarole Contradictory expectations about how a given role should be played Interrole - Differing requirements of two or more roles that must be played at the same time

Interpersonal Conflict

Occurs between two or more individuals who are in opposition to one another.
Personal differences -

Everyone has a unique background because of different values, socialization etc.

 Information deficiency two people in

conflict are using different information or that one or both have misinformation.
Role incompatibility Managers have

highly interdependent functions & tasks but their individual roles may be incompatible
Environmental stress

Intra Group conflict

Substantive conflict

Conflict that is based on intellectual disagreement among group members

Affective conflict

Based on emotional responses to a situation or when interacting individuals have incompatible styles or personalities.

Inter Group conflict

Occurs among members of different teams

or groups.
Competition for resources

Task interdependence more in a sequential

technological process
Jurisdictional ambiguity turf problems Status struggles HR departments feel they

are inequitably treated

Marketing Manufacturing Areas of Potential Goal Conflict

Goal Conflict MARKETING Operative goal is customer satisfaction VS. MANUFACTURING Operative goal is production efficiency

Conflict Area
Breadth of product line:

Typical Comment
Our customers demand variety. New products are our lifeblood. We need faster response. Lead times are too long. Why dont we ever have the right merchandise in inventory? Why cant we have reasonable quality at low cost?

Typical Comment
The product line is too broad, all we get are short, uneconomical runs.

New product introduction: Production scheduling:

Unnecessary design changes are prohibitively expensive.

We need realistic customer commitments that dont change like the wind direction We cant afford to keep huge inventories. Why must we always offer options that are too expensive and offer little customer utility?

Physical distribution:

Quality:

Intra organizational Conflict

Vertical conflict - conflict that exists between supervisors and subordinates, who may disagree about the best way to accomplish a task. Horizontal conflict- between employees or departments at the same level Line staff conflict Occurs over the involvement of staff people in line decisions say teachers and curriculum specialists

Sources of Conflict

Figure 16.3

Inter organizational conflict

Conflict that exists between organizations that

are interdependent with the same suppliers, customers, competitors, and governmental agencies Occurs during the competition and rivalry that characterize firms operating in the same markets. Occurs between unions and organizations employing their members.

Occurs between government regulatory agencies and organizations subject to their surveillance. Occurs between organizations and suppliers of raw materials.

The conflict Process

The Conflict Process:

Stage I: Potential Opposition or

Incompatibility 1. Communication:
Semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and noise

2. Structure:
Size and specialization of jobs Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity Member/goal incompatibility Leadership styles (close or participative) Reward systems (win-lose) Dependence/interdependence of groups

3. Personal Variables: Differing individual value systems Personality types

Stage II: Cognition and Personalization

Perceived Conflict
Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise.

Felt Conflict
Emotional involvement in a conflict creating anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility.

Conflict Definition

Negative Emotions

Positive Feelings

1. Intentions:

Stage III: Intentions

Decisions to act in a given way.

Cooperativeness: Attempting to satisfy the other partys concerns.

Assertiveness:
Attempting to satisfy ones own concerns.

Dimensions of Conflict-Handling Intentions:Thomas .K

Stage III: Intentions (contd)

1. Competing A desire to satisfy ones interests, regardless of the impact on the other party to the conflict. 2. Collaborating

A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties. 3. Avoiding
The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict.

4. Accommodating:

Stage III: Intentions (contd)

The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponents interests above his or her own.

5. Compromising:
A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something.

Stage IV: Behavior

This is where conflict becomes visible 1. Action reaction 2. Continuum from subtle to Highly destructive

Stage V: Outcomes
Functional Outcomes from Conflict:
Increased group performance Improved quality of decisions Stimulation of creativity and innovation

Encouragement of interest and curiosity

Provision of a medium for problem-solving Creation of an environment for self-evaluation and change

Creating Functional Conflict:

Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders.

Stage V: Outcomes
Dysfunctional Outcomes from Conflict:
Development of discontent Reduced group effectiveness Retarded communication Reduced group cohesiveness Infighting among group members overcomes group goals

Conflict Management:
The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict.

Managing Conflict

Conflict resolution techniques

Problem solving: resolve by open discussion Superordinate goals: creating shared goals Expansion of resources: Avoidence: withdrawal supression Smoothing: playing down with emphasis on common interests Compromise: Authoritative command Altering human variable: training to alter attitude Altering structural variable: job redesign, transfer etc

Managing conflicts:
Reduced interdependence:
Used for adjusting level of interdependency

when work-flow conflicts exists.

Options: Decoupling.

Buffering.
Linking pins.

Managing conflicts:
Appeals to common goals:
Focusing the attention of potentially conflicting

parties on one mutually desirable goal. Helping parties to recognize their mutual interdependence: Can be difficult to achieve if: Prior performance is poor. Parties disagree over how to improve performance.

Managing conflicts:
Hierarchical referral: Makes use of the chain of command for conflict

resolution. Problems with hierarchical referral: May not result in true conflict resolution. Possibility of inaccurate diagnosis of causes of conflict, resulting in only superficial resolution. Superiors may attribute conflict to poor interpersonal relationships.

 Alterations in the use of mythology and scripts.

Scripts are behavioral routines that become part

of the organizations culture.

Scripts prescribe ways of dealing with conflict.

Conflict stimulating techniques

Bringing outsiders: adding diversity in workgroup Communicating: ambiguous threatening messages Restructuring organisation: realligning
workgroups, rules and regulations, increasing interdependencies etc

Devils advocate: designating a critic purposely to

argue against majority positions.

Reward dissent punish avoiders

How can conflict be managed successfully?

Conflict resolution:

A situation in which the underlying reasons

for

given

destructive

conflict

are

eliminated.
Effective resolution begins with a diagnosis of
the stage to which conflict has developed and recognition of the cause(s) of the conflict.

Conflict Management Strategies:

Functional Conflict Resolution Handling conflict by compromise or collaboration between parties. Compromise: each party is concerned about their goal accomplishment and is willing to engage in giveand-take exchange to reach a reasonable solution. Collaboration: parties try to handle the conflict without making concessions by coming up with a new way to resolve their differences that leaves them both better off. Managers also must address individual sources of conflict.

The Strategy-Structure Relationship:

Strategy
Innovation

Structural Option
Organic: A loose structure; low specialization, low formalization, decentralized Mechanistic: Tight control; extensive work specialization, high formalization, high centralization

Cost minimization

Imitation

Mechanistic and organic: Mix of loose with tight properties; tight controls over current activities and looser controls for new undertakings

Organization Structure: Its Determinants and Outcomes

Implicit Models of Organizational Structure:

Perceptions that people hold regarding structural variables formed by observing things around them in an unscientific fashion.

Conflict Out come Win-Lose

Lose-Lose Compromise Win-Win

Win-Lose
In Win Lose, one party gets what he or she wants, whereas the other comes up short.
Power is the distinguishing characteristic in win-lose problem solving, for it necessary to defeat an opponent to get what one wants.

Lose-Lose
Neither party is satisfied with the outcome.
Most of us have seen battles of pride in which both parties strike out and both suffer.

Compromise
Compromise give both parties some of what they wanted, though both sacrifice part of their goals.
Although compromises may be the best obtainable result in some conflicts, its important to realize that both people in a dispute can often work together to find much better solutions.

Win Win
The goal is to find a solution that satisfies the needs of everyone involved. Not only do the parties avoid trying to win at the others expense, but they also believe that by working together it is possible to find a solution that goes beyond mere compromise and allows all parties to reach their goal in the conflict.

Negotiation
A process where two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on exchange rate for them.

Bargain
Distributive Integrative

Bargaininig characteristic Distributive

Available resources Fixed

Integrative
Variable

Primary motivations
Primary interests Focus of relationships

I win you lose

Opposed to each other Short term

I win you win

convergent or congruent long term

Steps to follow
1. Preparation and planning
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The nature of conflict The history and background Who is involved Our goals What the other party is likely to ask for How entrenched they are To what level they may settle

Steps to follow
2. Ground rules:
1. 2. 3. 4. Who is negotiating Where Urgency to negotiate Time frame

3. Clarification and justification

1. 2. Amplify clarify justify explain your position Carry necessary documents

4. Bargaining and problem solving 5. Closure and implementation

Stress

WHAT IS STRESS?
l Stress is your mind and bodys response or reaction to a real or imagined threat, event or change. l The threat, event or change are commonly called stressors. Stressors can be internal (thoughts, beliefs, attitudes or external (loss, tragedy, change).

What is Stress?
In the Good Old Days on the Serengeti. Flight or Fight Mechanisms (Adrenaline) Problems with Modern Life Survival Still Threatened

Manifestations of Stress
Sources
Personal Pressure to Succeed Financial Problems Relationship Problems Holidays

Manifestations
Increased Heart Rate, Sleeplessness, Anxiety, Variable Appetite

Long Term Stress

Being in Panic Mode all the time Learned Helplessness Can lead to numerous health problems Can lead to Burnout

LEVELS OF STRESS

Slide 7.10 Typical Relationship Between Performance and Stress

High (excellent)
Level of Performanc e Low (poor) Low Too Little Stress Optimum Stress Excessive Stress

Amount of Stress

High

EUSTRESS
Eustress or positive stress occurs when your level of stress is high enough to motivate you to move into action to get things accomplished.

DISTRESS
Distress or negative stress occurs when your level of stress is either too high or too low and your body and/or mind begin to respond negatively to the stressors.

STAGES OF STRESS

Slide 7.2 The Relationship Between Stressors and Experienced Stress

Influenced by the Persons: Perceptions Stressors from the Environment Past Experiences Social Support Individual Differences Stress Experienced by the Person

Slide 7.5 Sources of Work Stressors and Experienced Stress

Work Stressors Workload Influenced by the Employees: Perceptions Stress Experienced by the Employee

Job Conditions Role Conflict and Ambiguity Career Development

Past Experiences

Social Support

Individual Differences

Interpersonal Relations

Aggressive Behavior Conflict Between Work and Other Roles

Slide 7.6 Stressors and WorkFamily Conflict

Stressors
Work Versus Family

Creates
Work and Family Stress on Employee

Leads to
WorkFamily Conflicts

Triggers Possible Outcomes

Dissatisfaction

Frustration

Depression

ALARM STAGE
As you begin to experience a stressful event or perceive something to be stressful psychological changes occur in your body. This experience or perception disrupts your bodys normal balance and immediately your body begins to respond to the stressor(s) as effectively as possible.

EXAMPLES
l l l l Cardiac - increased heart rate Respiratory - increased respiration Skin - decreased temperature Hormonal - increased stimulation of adrenal genes which produce an adrenal rush.

RESISTANCE STAGE
During this stage your body tries to cope or adapt to the stressors by beginning a process of repairing any damage the stressor has caused. Your friends, family or co-workers may notice changes in you before you do so it is important to examine their feedback to make sure you do not reach overload.

EXAMPLES
l Behavior indicators include: lack of enthusiasm for family, school, work or life in general, withdrawal, change in eating habits, insomnia, hypersomnia, anger, fatigue.
l Cognitive Indicators include: poor problem solving, confusion, nightmares, hypervigilance.

RESISTANCE STAGE MORE EXAMPLES

l l l l l l l l

Emotional indicators include: tearfulness fear anxiety panic guilt agitation depression overwhelmed.

EXHAUSTION STAGE
During this stage the stressor is not being managed effectively and the body and mind are not able to repair the damage.

EXAMPLES
Digestive disorders, withdrawal, headaches, tension, insomnia, loss of temper.

Personal factors
Prone to negative effects of stress Do not separate what is important from what is unimportant Pessimistic style Easily angered / no tolerance for frustration Negative attitude toward others See life as meaningless Blame self for events beyond their own control Have no sense of humor

Attitude toward stress well Handle stressors

Discriminate important from unimportant Optimistic Slow to anger / tolerant of frustration Positive attitude toward others See life as meaningful Understand that some events are beyond our control Have a sense of humor

IM IN CONTROL - DISTRESS RELIEF STRATEGIES

Feeling good about yourselves can be an effective buffer against stress. Eliminate unnecessary worries. Most worries are either passed on to us by another or conjured up in GET SPIRITUAL our imagination. PHYSICAL EXERCISE
1. 2. 3. 4. Relax neck and shoulders Take a stretch Get a massage Exercise 12. Meditate 13. Pray 14. Remember your purpose

GET MENTAL 5. Count to 10 6. Control your thoughts 7. Fantasize 8. Congratulate yourself 9. Ignore the problem if appropriate, after evaluation 10. Perform self maintenance 11. Talk to a counselor

USE YOUR BODY AND MIND TOGETHER 15. Take a break 16. Get hug therapy 17. Try progressive relaxation 18. Try yoga 19. Try aroma therapy 20. Laugh DEVELOP NEW SKILLS 21. Prioritize daily tasks 22. Learn something 23. Practice a hobby

Leadership

Some Characteristics Of Managers Versus Leaders In The Twenty-First Century Manager Characteristics
Administers A copy Maintains Focuses on systems and structures Relies on control Short-range view Asks how and when Eye on the bottom line Imitates Accepts the status quo Classic good soldier Does things right

Leader Characteristics
Innovates An original Develops Focuses on people Inspires trust Long-range perspective Asks what and why Eye on the horizon Originates Challenges the status quo Own person Does the right thing

17-101

Summary Of The Three Domains Of Leadership

Leader-Based
What is leadership? Appropriate behavior of the person in leader role

Follower-Based
Ability and motivation to manage ones own performance

Relationship-Based
Trust, respect, and mutual obligation that generates influence between parties

What behaviors constitute leadership?

Establishing and communicating vision; inspiring, instilling pride

Empowering, coaching, facilitating, giving up control

Building strong relationships with followers; mutual learning and accommodation

Advantages

Leader as rallying point for organization; common understanding of mission and values; can initiate wholesale change

Makes the most of follower capabilities; frees up leaders for other responsibilities

Accommodates differing needs of subordinates; can elicit superior work from different types of people

17-102

Summary Of The Three Domains Of Leadership (cont.)

Leader-Based
Disadvantages Highly dependent on leader; problems if leader changes or is pursuing inappropriate vision

Follower-Based
Highly dependent on follower initiative and ability

Relationship-Based
Time-consuming; relies on long-term relationship between specific leaders and members

When appropriate?

Fundamental change; charismatic leader in place; limited diversity among followers

Highly capable and task-committed followers

Continuous improvement of teamwork; substantial diversity and stability among followers; network building

Where most effective?

Structured tasks; strong leader position power; member acceptance of leader

Unstructured tasks; weak position power; member nonacceptance of leader

Situation favorability for leader between two extremes

17-103

Fiedlers Contingency Model Of Leadership

Taskdirected

Style of leadership

Humanoriented, democratic Very Unfavorable

17-104

+ Very
Unfavorable Favorable Favorable

Favorableness of the Situation

A Summary Of Path-Goal Relationships

SUBORDINATE CHARACTERISTICS Locus of control and/or ability

LEADER BEHAVIOR/STYLES Directive Supportive Participative Achievement-oriented

SUBORDINATE Perceptions Motivation

OUTCOMES Satisfaction Role clarity Goal clarity Performance

ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES Task characteristics Formal authority system Primary work group
17-105

Ethical And Unethical Characteristics Of Charismatic Leaders

Ethical Charismatic Leader Unethical Charismatic Leader

Uses power to serve others

Uses power only for personal ga or impact Aligns vision with followers needs Promotes own personal vision and aspirations Considers and learns from criticismCensures critical or opposing vi Stimulates followers to think Demands own decisions be acce independently and to question the without question leaders view Open, two-way communication One-way communication Coaches, develops, and supports Insensitive to followers needs followers; shares recognition with others Relies on internal moral standards Relies on convenient, external m 17-106 to satisfy organizational and standards to satisfy self-interest

A Social Cognitive Approach To Leadership

LEADER (includes cognition)

LEADER BEHAVIOR

ENVIRONMENT (includes subordinates and organizational variables)

17-107

Summary Continuum Of Leadership Styles Drawn From The Classic Studies And Theories Of Leadership Boss-Centered
Theory X Autocratic Production-centered

Employee-Centered
Theory Y Democratic Employee-centered

Close
Initiating structure Task-directed Directive Directive
18-108

General
Consideration Human relations Supportive Participative

The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum Of Leadership Behavior

Boss-centered leadership Employee-centered leadership

Use of authority by the manager

Area of freedom for subordinates

Manager makes decisions and announces it

18-109

Manager sells decision

Manager presents ideas and invites questions

Manager presents tentative decision subject to change

Manager presents problem, gets suggestions, makes decision

Manager defines limits; asks group to make decision

Manager permits subordinates to function within defined limits

The Blake And Mouton Managerial Grid

9 8 1,9 Management Thoughtful attention to needs of people 9,9 Management Work accomplishment is from committed people

Concern for People

7 6 5 4 3 1,1 Management Minimum effort to get work done will sustain organizational membership 1 2 3 4 5 6 5,5 Management Adequate organization performance is possible by balancing morale of people with work 9,1 Management Efficiency in operations by minimizing human elements contributions 7 8 9

2
1

18-110

Concern for Task

Hersey And Blanchards Situational Leadership Model

TASK ORIENTED

RELATIONSHIP ORIENTED

Very high
18-111

High

Low

Very low

Maturity Level of Followers

Factors Contributing To Effective Leadership Style

Vision

Passion and self-sacrifice Confidence, determination, persistence

Inspirational communication

Frame alignment

Effective Leadership

Image building

Selective motive arousal Expectation of and confidence in followers

18-112

Role modeling

External representation

Mintzbergs Managerial Roles

FORMAL AUTHORITY AND STATUS INTERPERSONAL ROLES

Figurehead Leader Liaison

INFORMATIONAL ROLES

Monitor Disseminator Spokesperson

DECISIONAL ROLES

18-113

Entrepreneur Disturbance handler Resource allocator Negotiator

Luthans Conceptual Categories Of Real Managers Activities

TYPE OF ACTIVITY Routine communication DESCRIPTION OF CATEGORIES Exchanging information Handling paperwork Planning Traditional management Decision making Controlling Networking Interacting with outsiders Socializing/Politicking Motivating/Reinforcing

Disciplining/Punishing
Human resource management
18-114

Managing conflict Staffing Training/Developing

Relative Distribution Of Managers Activities

29%

19%

20%

32%

Networking
Human Resources
18-115

Traditional Management
Routine Communication

What Is Leadership?
Leadership The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. Management Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members.

Trait Theories
Traits Theories of Leadership Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Leadership Traits: Extraversion

Conscientiousness
Openness Emotional Intelligence (qualified)

Trait Theories
Limitations:
No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.

Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.
Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.

Trait Approach
Traits (examples)
Extraversion Conscientiousness Openness

Assumption: Leaders are born Goal: Select leaders Problems

Traits do not generalize across situations Better at predicting leader emergence than leader effectiveness

Behavioral Theories Behavioral Theories of Leadership

Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
Behavioral theory: Leadership behaviors can be taught. Vs. Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made.

Behavioral Approach
Ohio State Studies/U. of Michigan Initiating Structure/Production Orientation Consideration/Employee Orientation Assumption: Leaders can be trained Goal: Develop leaders Problem: Effective behaviors do not generalize across situations

Ohio State Studies

Initiating Structure The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of subordinates in the search for goal attainment. Consideration The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates ideas, and regard for their feelings.

University of Michigan Studies

Employee-Oriented Leader
Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members. Production-Oriented Leader

One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.

The Managerial Grid

(Blake and Mouton)

E X H I B I T 121

CONTINGENCY THEORIES
All Consider the Situation
Fiedlers Contingency Model Cognitive Resource Theory Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Model Path Goal Theory

Assumptions underlying the different models: Fiedler: Leaders style is fixed Others: Leaders style can and should be changed

Fiedler Model
Leader: Style is Fixed (Task oriented vs. Relationship oriented) Considers Situational Favorableness for Leader
Leader-member relations Task structure Position power Key Assumption Leader must fit situation; options to accomplish this: Select leader to fit situation Change situation to fit leader

Fiedlers Model: The Leader

Assumption: Leaders Style is Fixed & Can be Measured by the Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire The way in which a leader will evaluate a co-worker that is not liked will indicate whether the leader is task- or relationshiporiented.

Fiedlers Model: Defining the Situation

Leader-Member Relations

The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.

Task Structure
The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.

Position Power Influence derived from ones formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.

Findings of the Fiedler Model

Good
Task-Oriented

Performance

Relationship -Oriented

Poor Favorable I Category Unfavorable Moderate II III IV V VI VII VIII Leader-Member Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor Relations Task StructureHigh High Low Low High High Low Low Position Power Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak

Findings from Fiedler Model

Cognitive Resource Theory

Cognitive Resource Theory
A theory of leadership that states that the level of stress in a situation is what impacts whether a leaders intelligence or experience will be more effective. Research Support:
Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals. Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.

Contingency Approach: Hersey & Blanchard Situational Model

Considers Leader Behaviors (Task & Relationship)
Assumes Leaders CAN change their behaviors

Considers Followers as the Situation

Follower Task maturity (ability & experience) Follower Psychological maturity (willingness to take responsibility) Assumptions
Leaders can and should change their style to fit their followers degree of readiness (willingness and ability) Therefore, it is possible to TRAIN leaders to better fit their style to their followers.

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) A contingency theory that focuses on followers readiness; the more ready the followers (the more willing and able) the less the need for leader support and supervision. LOW
Amount of Follower Readiness

HIGH

Amount of Leader Support & Supervision Required

LOW

HIGH

Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness (Hersey and Blanchard)

Follower Readiness

Unwilling
Supportive Participative

Willing

Able

Monitoring

Leadership Styles Directive High Task and Relationship Orientations

Unabl e

LeaderMember Exchange Theory

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory Leaders select certain followers to be in (favorites)

Based on competence and/or compatibility & similarity to leader

Exchanges with these In followers will be higher quality than with those who are Out RESULT: In subordinates will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

E X H I B I T 123

Premise

Path-Goal Theory

Leader must help followers attaining goals and reduce roadblocks to success Leaders must change behaviors to fit the situation (environmental contingencies & subordinate contingencies)

The Path-Goal Theory

E X H I B I T 124

Leader-Participation Model
Premise:
Rule based decision tree to guide leaders about when and when not to include subordinate participation in decision making Considers 12 contingency variables to consider whether or not to include subordinates in decision making

Chapter Check-Up: Leadership

Which leadership theory (ies) say(s) that a
leader cannot be trained?
Ohio State Model Fiedlers Contingency Theory U. Of Michigan Studies Path Goal Theory

All of the above

Fielders Contingency Theory is the only one

which says a leaders style is fixed and cannot be

trained. But, what do all of the theories above have in common?

Chapter Check-Up: Leadership

What one theory discussed in this chapter could readily explain how leaders often act towards their

followers in Boot Camp and why it may be very

effective?

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory explains that

when followers are unwilling and unable, as many newly enlisted Boot Camp attendees are, the leader should be highly focused on providing task-based behaviors and not relationship-based behaviors.