FIBER OPTIC CHARACTERISTICS

In the early days of radio transmission when the information transmitted was mostly restricted to the Morse code and speech, low frequencies (long waves) were used. The range of frequencies able to be transmitted, called the bandwidth, was very low.

This inevitably restricted us to low speed data transmission and poor quality transmission.

As time went by, we required a wider bandwidth to send more complex information and to improve the speed of transmission. To do this, we had to increase the frequency of the radio signal used. The usable bandwidth is limited by the frequency used the higher the frequency, the greater the bandwidth.

The early experiments showed that visible light transmission was possible and we explored the visible spectrum for the best light frequency to use. The promise of fiber optics was the possibility of increased transmission rates. We quickly appreciated that it was not worth pursuing higher and higher frequencies in order to obtain higher bandwidths if it meant that we could only transmit the data over very short distances. The bandwidth of a light based system was so high that a relatively low frequency could be tolerated in order to get lower losses and hence more transmission range.

So we explored the lower frequency or red end of the visible spectrum and then even further down into the infrared. And that is where we are at the present time.
Infrared light covers a fairly wide range of wavelengths and is generally used for all fiber optic communications. Visible light is normally used for very short range transmission using a plastic fiber.

 In fiber optics, we find it more convenient to use the wavelength of light instead of the frequency.

All transparent materials scatter light because of microscopic density fluctuation (non uniformities). Scattering in a fiber decreases rapidly with increasing wavelength as shown in Figure 1.3. This scattering is termed as Rayleigh Scattering. The losses at 1380nm wavelength are very high due to water within the glass. It is a real surprise to find that glass is not totally waterproof. Water in the form of hydroxyl ions is absorbed within the molecular structure and absorbs energy with a wavelength of 1380 nm.

Having decided to use infrared light for (nearly) all communications, we are still not left with an entirely free hand. We require light sources for communication systems and some wavelengths are easier and less expensive to manufacture than others.
The same applies to the photodetectors at the receiving end of the system. Some wavelengths are not desirable: 1380 nm for example. The losses at this wavelength are very high due to water within the glass.

It is a real surprise to find that glass is not totally waterproof. Water in the form of hydroxyl ions is absorbed within the molecular structure and absorbs energy with a wavelength of 1380 nm. During manufacture it is therefore of great importance to keep the glass as dry as possible with water content as low as 1 part in 109.

It makes commercial sense to agree on standard wavelengths to ensure that equipment from different manufacturers is compatible.

These standard wavelengths are called windows

and we optimize the performance of fibers and

light sources so that they perform at their best within one of these windows (Figure 1.3).

The 1300 nm and 1550 nm windows have much lower losses and are used for long distance communications.

The choice of frequency around 850 nm has higher losses and is used for shorter range data transmissions and local area networks (LANs), perhaps up to 10 km or so. However, the 850 nm window remains in use because the system is less expensive and easier to install.

In fiber optics communication systems, one of the important parameter is wavelength. This brings us to TWO(2) important concepts: wavelength and period. Wavelength is the distance between two identical points ( the points having the same phase) of two successive cycles of the wave. Period is the time it takes a wave two identical points (the points having the same phase) to pass, in sequence, the same space location.

The wavelength and the period of the wave are related through wave velocity. The period, T is the time it takes a wave to travel the distance equal to one wavelength, , at velocity, c. On the other hand, a wavelength , is the distance travelled by a wave per one period, T at velocity, c.

Therefore light velocity is equal to wavelength divided by period,

c = /T

Also well known as c = f. Where c = speed of light (m/s) = wavelength (m) f = frequency (Hz) since f = 1/T The speed of light in free space is c = 3 X 108 m/s The central frequency of visible light is about 6X1014Hz Hence the center of visible wavelengths has the order of value = 0.5 X 10-6 meters or 0.5 micrometers (m). Fiber optic communications technology usually measures wavelength in nanometers (nm); a nanometer is 10-9 m, thus this wavelength is 500nm.

 The exact nature of visible light is a mystery that has puzzled man for centuries. One point of view envisions light as wavelike in nature, producing energy that traverses through space in a manner similar to the ripples spreading across the surface of a still pond after being disturbed by a dropped rock.

 The light waves spread out along its beam. Looking down and seeing the wave crests it would appear as shown in Figure 2.5.

As we move further from the light source, the wavefront gets straighter and straighter. At a long distance from the light source, the wavefront would be virtually straight.

In a short interval of time each end of the wavefront would move forward a set distance.

If we look at a single ray of light moving through a clear material the distance advanced by the wavefront would be quite regular as shown in Figure 2.6.

There is a widely held view that light always travels at the same speed. This fact is simply not true.

The speed of light depends upon the material through which it is moving. In free space light travels at its maximum possible speed, close to 300 million meters or nearly eight times round the world in a second.

Why don't photons collide with each other when traveling towards each other? Photons in free space act almost exclusively as waves. Therefore, when they cross paths they merely set up an interference pattern for the very brief time of their interaction.

No energy is exchanged and the quantum state of each photon is unchanged after they pass each other. This interference pattern is akin to ripples on water that approach each other, form an interference pattern of peaks and troughs and then continue on their way.

 If matter is present where the photons cross, non-linear effects caused by accelerated electric charges may allow the photons to interact. This interaction could be considered a collision of sorts, resulting in exchange of energies with many possible outcomes. One such outcome is called frequency doubling, where two photons are combined to form one photon at twice the frequency.

Quantum mechanics was born from the research of Einstein, Planck, de Broglie, Neils Bohr, Erwin Schrdinger, and others who attempted to explain how electromagnetic radiation can display what has now been termed duality, or both particle-like and wave-like behavior. At times light behaves as a particle, and at other times as a wave.

When a light wave hits an object, what happens to it depends on the energy of the light wave, the natural frequency at which electrons vibrate in the material and the strength with which the atoms in the material hold on to their electrons. Based on these three factors, four different things can happen when light hits an object: The waves can be reflected or scattered off the object. The waves can be absorbed by the object. The waves can be refracted through the object. The waves can pass through the object with no effect