rotary-microtome

GENERAL BIOLOGY
Structure & Function of Animal Organs

Structure & Function of Animal Organs

by General Biology Subjects Teams

Department of Biology Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences Brawijaya University Malang

Introduction:

Study in Biology (Biosciences)

Characteristics of Life
Organization: condition in which there are specific relationships and functions; order Cellular composition: all living things are composed of cells Metabolism: all chemical reactions of the body
Catabolism - the breakdown of substances into simple components Anabolism - synthesis of complex structures form simpler substances

Responsiveness: ability to sense and react to stimuli Growth: increase in size and/or number of cells Development: changes in form or function of an organism over time Reproduction: production of new cells or new organisms

Structural & Functional Organizations

Chemical Level: interaction of atoms Cell Level: functional unit of life Tissue Level: group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them Organ Level: one or more tissues functioning together Organ System Level: group of organs functioning together Organism Level: any living thing.

What we can see

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy: scientific discipline that investigates the bodys structure related to Physiology: scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things

Topics of Anatomy
Gross or macroscopic: structures examined without a microscope
Regional: studied area by area; abdomen, head/neck Systemic: studied system by system; nervous, skeletal Surface: study of internal structures as they relate to deeper structures

Microscopic: structures seen with the microscope

Cytology: cellular anatomy Histology: study of tissues

Developmental Anatomy
Traces structural changes throughout life Embryology study of developmental changes of the body before birth

ANATOMY : (from Websters New World College Dictionary)

Greek > anatomia, anatome~ : a cutting up anatemnein > ana (up) + temnein : to cut 1. the dissecting of an animal or plant in order to determine position, structure, etc.of its parts. 2. the science of morphology or structure of animals or plants. 3. structure of organism or body. 4. detailed analysis 5. [Archaic] a skeleton

Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function

Function always reflects structure What a structure can do depends on its specific form Examples:
Friction ridges of the fingers Folding of the intestinal lining Hardness of bone Ultra-thin lining of cells through which diffusion occurs

HISTOLOGY :
(from Websters New World College Dictionary)

Greek > histos : a web logos : science, theory 1. the branch of Biology concern with the microscopic study of structure of tissues. 2. the tissue structure of organism or parts, as revealed by microscopic study.

Tissues and Histology

Tissue classification based on structure of cells, composition of noncellular extracellular matrix, and cell function
Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous

Histology: Microscopic Study of Tissues

Biopsy: removal of tissues for diagnostic purposes Autopsy: examination of organs of a dead body to determine cause of death

Tissues are Derived from the Three Embryonic Germ Layers in Vertebrates

Embryonic Tissue
Germ layers
Endoderm
Inner layer Forms lining of digestive tract and derivatives

Mesoderm
Middle layer Forms tissues as such muscle, bone, blood vessels

Ectoderm
Outer layer Forms skin and neuroectoderm

Developmental Aspects

Figure 4.13

Ten Organ Systems of Vertebrates 1. Integumentary system 2. Skeletal System 3. Muscular System 4. Nervous System (including sense organs) 5. Endocrine System 6. Digestive System 7. Respiratory System 8. Circulatory System 9. Excretory System 10. Reproductive System

Organ Systems: Their Main Components and Functions in Mammals

Organ Systems of the Body

BO

Forms the external body covering Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vit. D

Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments Protects and supports body organs Provides the framework for muscles Site of blood cell formation Stores minerals (calcium, phosphorous)

Composed of muscles and tendons Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression Maintains posture Produces heat

BO (Bimbingan Orang tua)

BO

BO

BO

BO

BO

Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves Is the fast-acting control system of the body Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands

Composed of various hormone-secreting glands Regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism by body cells

Composed of the heart and blood vessels The heart pumps blood The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body

BO

BO

BO

Composed of red bone marrow,

thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels Picks up fluid leaked from bvs and returns it to blood Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream Houses white blood cells involved with immunity

Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide

Composed of the oral cavity,

esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and liver Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces

BO

BO

BO

BO

BO
Composed of prostate gland,

Composed of kidneys,

glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, ureters, urinary bladder, and uterus, and vagina urethra Main function is the Eliminates nitrogenous production of offspring wastes from the body Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones Regulates water, electrolyte, Remaining structures serve and pH balance of the blood as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn Note: Study by yourself about every organs of each

Composed of mammary

penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens Main function is the production of offspring Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract

Organ Systems above !!

Comparative Anatomy
Comparative Anatomy

Struktur homolog berevolusi dari struktur asli umum

Analog Struktur berevolusi dari struktur asli yang berbeda namun fungsi yang sama
Struktur vestigial berfungsi dalam organisme leluhur, tetapi y angberkurang (dalam struktur dan fungsi) d alam keturunan yang Contoh pada manusia: Lampiran usus ekor tulang belakang dari tulang ekor

Homologous structures suggested common ancestors and variation in evolution since those ancestors

Planes of section in Anatomy

Four Main BASIC TISSUES of ANIMAL:

EPITHELIAL TISSUES

Connective Tissue
Muscle Tissue Nervous Tissues

EPITHELIAL TISSUES

structure and function of epithelial tissues

Epithelium Characteristics
Cellularity-Terdiri hampir seluruhnya sel Meliputi permukaan tubuh dan kelenjar bentuk Permukaan luar tubuh Lapisan sistem pencernaan, pernapasan dan urogenital Jantung dan pembuluh darh Lapisan rongga tubuh banyak Polaritas-Memiliki permukaan apikal, basal, dan lateral Basement membran Khusus sel kontak Avaskular tidak ada pembuluh darah Regenerative-Menggantikan kehilangan sel dengan pembelahan sel

Basement Membrane
(membrana basalis)
Ekstraselular:dibentuk oleh sekresi kedua epitel dan jaringan ikat. Sebuah"lem" selular Lampiran C.T. (jaringan ikat) Panduan sel migrasi selama perbaikan jaringan Bertindak sebagai filter dalam nefron ginjal Tidak setiap epitel membran basement yang terkait dengannya.

Functions of Epithelia
Protecting underlying structures; e.g., epithelium lining the mouth Acting as barriers; e.g., skin Permitting the passage of substances; e.g., nephrons in kidney Secreting substances; e.g., pancreas Absorbing substances; e.g., lining of small intestine

Classification of Epithelium
Jumlah lapisan sel
Sederhana-satu lapisan sel. Setiap memanjang dari membran basal kepermukaan bebas Berlapis-lebih dari satu lapisan. Bentuk sel-sel dari lapisan apikal digunakan untuk nama jaringan. Termasuk epitel transisi di mana sel apikal lapisan berubah bentuk tergantung pada distensi organ yang garis jaringan Pseudostratified-jaringan tampaknya bertingkat, tapi semua kontak selmembran basal sehingga sebenarnya sederhana Bentuk sel
Skuamosa-datar, skala seperti Cuboidal-hampir sama tinggi dan lebar Kolumnar-lebih tinggi dari lebar

Functional Characteristics

How does shape affect function?

Simpel: memungkinkan difusi gas, filtrasi darah, sekresi, penyerapan Bertingkat: perlindungan, terutama terhadap abr asi Skuamosa: memungkinkan difusi atau bertindak sebagai filter Cuboidal dan columnar: sekresi atau penyerapan. Mungkin termasuk selgoblet yang memproduksi dan mengeluarkan lendir.

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Structure: single layer of flat cells Functions: diffusion, filtration, some protection against friction, secretion, absorption. Location: simple squamous- lining of the heart, blood and lymphatic vessels (endothelium) and, alveoli of the lungs, lining of serous membranes (mesothelium).

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure: single layer of cube-shaped cells with large, central nuclei Some types have microvilli (kidney tubules) or cilia (terminal bronchioles of the lungs) Functions: Secretion and absorption in the kidney Secretion in glands and choroid plexus Movement of mucus out of the terminal bronchioles by ciliated cells. Locations: Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid plexus of the brain, and surface of the ovaries.

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Structure: single layer of tall, narrow cells. Some have cilia (bronchioles, auditory tubes, uterine tubes, and uterus) or microvilli (intestine). Functions:
Movement of particles out of the bronchioles by ciliated cells Aids in the movement of oocytes through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells Secretion by glands of the stomach and the intestine Absorption by cells of the intestine.

Location. Glands and some ducts, bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, uterus, uterine tubes, stomach, intestines.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Structure: Single layer of cells with different heights; all cells reach basement membrane; some do not reach the free surface. Appears stratified because nuclei are at various levels. Almost always ciliated and associated with goblet (mucus-producing) cells. Functions:
Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface Move mucus (or fluid) that contains foreign particles over the free surface and from passages

Locations:
Ciliated type in lining of nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, and bronchi of lungs. Nonciliated type in males sperm-carrying ducts

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Structure: multiple layers of cells that are cuboidal in the basal layer and progressively flatten toward the surface. In moist, surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm. In keratinized, surface cells are dead. Locations:
Non-keratinized- mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina, inferior urethra, and cornea Keratinized- skin (epidermis)

Functions: protection against abrasion, caustic chemicals, water loss, and infection.

Transitional Epithelium
Structure: stratified; basal cells are cuboidal, surface cells are dome shaped Functions: stretches to permit the distension of the urinary bladder Location: lining of urinary bladder, ureters and superior urethra.

Epithelium: Glandular
A gland is one or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid Epithelium with supporting network of connective tissue (C.T.) Two types of glands formed by infolding of epithelium:
Endocrine: no open contact with exterior; no ducts; produce hormones Exocrine: open contact maintained with exterior; ducts

Exocrine glands classified either by structure or by the method of secretion Classified by structure
Unicellular: goblet cells Multicellular

Endocrine Glands
Ductless glands that produce hormones Secretions travel to target site via the blood Examples:
Pituitary Thyroid and Parathyroid Pancreas Adrenal Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)

Secretions include amino acids, proteins, glycoproteins, and steroids

Exocrine Glands
More numerous than endocrine glands Secrete their products onto body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities Examples include mucous, sweat, oil, lacrima, and salivary glands The only important unicellular gland is the goblet cell Multicellular exocrine glands are composed of a duct and secretory unit

Multicellular Exocrine Glands

Classified on the basis of types of ducts or mode of secretion Types of ducts Simple: ducts with few branches Compound: ducts with many branches If ducts end in tubules or saclike structures: acini. Pancreas If ducts end in simple sacs: alveoli. Lungs

Classified by Method of Secretion Types

Merocrine
No loss of cytoplasm. Secretion leaves by exocytosis. Sweat glands, pancreas, and salivary glands

Apocrine
Fragments of the gland go into the secretion. Apex of cell pinches off. Mammary glands.

Holocrine
Whole cell becomes part of secretion. Secretion accumulates in cell, cell ruptures and dies. Sebaceous glands (Oil glands of skin)

Epithelial tissues

Simple squamous epithelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Simple columnar epithelium

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (ciliated)

Connective Tissue

Connective Tissues

Abundant; found in every organ Consists of cells and fibers separated by extracellular matrix Many diverse types Performs variety of important functions

Representative types of connective tissue

Connective Tissue: Embryonic Origin

Figure 4.5

Characteristics of Connective Tissue

Connective tissues have:
Mesenchyme as their common tissue of origin Varying degrees of vascularity Nonliving extracellular matrix, consisting of ground substance and fibers

Functions of Connective Tissue

Enclose organs as a capsule and separate organs into layers Connect tissues to one another. Tendons and ligaments. Support and movement. Bones. Storage. Fat. Cushion and insulation. Fat. Transport. Blood. Protection. Cells of the immune system.

Structural Elements of Connective Tissue Ground substance unstructured material that fills the space between cells Fibers collagen, elastic, or reticular Cells fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, and hematopoietic stem cells

Ground Substance
Interstitial (tissue) fluid Most common molecules are: Hyaluronic acid: polysaccharide. Good lubricant. Vitreous humor of eye. Proteoglycans: protein and polysaccharide. Protein part attaches to hyaluronic acid. Trap large amounts of water. Adhesive molecules: hold proteoglycan aggregates together. Chondronectin in cartilage, osteonectin in bone, fibronectin in fibrous connective tissue. Functions as a molecular filter through which nutrients diffuse between blood capillaries and cells

Ground Substance: Proteoglycan Structure

Figure 4.6b

Composition of Extracellular Matrix: Fibers

Protein fibers
Collagen. Most common protein in body; strong, flexible, inelastic; great tensile strength Elastic. Returns to its original shape after distension or compression. Contain molecules of protein elastin that resemble coiled springs. Reticular. Fill spaces between tissues and organs. Fine collagenous, form branching networks (stroma)

Connective Tissue Cells

Fibroblasts - secrete the proteins for fiber synthesis and components of the extracellular matrix Adipose or fat cells (adipocytes). Common in some tissues (dermis of skin); rare in some (cartilage) Mast cells. Common beneath membranes; along small blood vessels. Can release heparin, histamine, and proteolytic enzymes in response to injury. White blood cells. Respond to injury or infection Macrophages. Phagocytize or provide protection Chondroblasts Osteoblasts Hematopoietic stem cells - blood Undifferentiated mesenchyme (stem cells). Have potential to differentiate into adult cell types.

Figure 40.2x Connective tissue

Embryonic Connective Tissue

Mesenchyme: source of all adult connective tissue.
Forms primarily from mesoderm Delicate collagen fibers embedded in semifluid matrix

Mucus: found only in the umbilical cord. Whartons jelly.

Adult Connective Tissues

Loose (areolar). Collagenous fibers are loosely arranged Dense. Fibers form thick bundles that nearly fill all extracellular space
Dense regular Dense irregular

With special properties Cartilage Bone Blood and hemopoietic tissue

Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue

Loose packing material of most organs and tissues Location: Attaches skin to underlying tissues. Superficial fascia = subcutaneous layer = hypodermis Contains collagen, reticular, elastic fibers and all five types of cells Often seen in association with other types of C.T., like reticular tissue and fat Cells include fibroblasts, mast cells, lymphocytes, adipose cells, macrophages

Connective Tissue : Adipose

Predominant cells are adipocytes
Yellow (white). Most abundant type, has a wide distribution. White at birth and yellows with age. Scant ring of cytoplasm surrounding single large lipid droplet. Nuclei flattened Under skin, around kidneys and eyeballs, within abdomen, in breasts Brown. Found only in specific areas of body: axillae, neck and near kidneys Cells are polygonal in shape, have a considerable volume of cytoplasm and contain multiple lipid droplets of varying size.

Connective Tissue Proper: Loose

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Has abundant parallel collagen fibers that resist stretching Major cell type is fibroblast
Tendons: Connect muscles to bones Ligaments: Connect bones to bones. Collagen often less compact, usually flattened, form sheets or bands Aponeuroes: flattened sheet of tendon

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Irregularly arranged collagen fibers with some elastic fibers Major cell type is fibroblast Withstands tension in many directions Forms innermost layer of the dermis of the skin, scars, capsules of kidney and spleen

Elastic Connective Tissue

Ligaments in vocal folds; nuchal ligament Collagen fibers give strength (for when you shout), but elastic fibers are more prevalent

Elastic Connective Tissue

Bundles and sheets of collagenous and elastic fibers oriented in multiple directions In walls of elastic arteries Strong, yet elastic

Connective Tissue: Cartilage

Composed of chondrocytes located in matrix-surrounded spaces called lacunae. Type of cartilage determined by components of the matrix. Firm consistency. Ground substance: Proteoglycans and hyaluronic acid complexed together trap large amounts of water. Tissue can spring back after being compressed. Avascular and no nerve supply. Heals slowly. Perichondrium. Dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds cartilage. Fibroblasts of perichondrium can differentiate into chondroblasts. Types of cartilage
Hyaline Fibrocartilage Elastic

Hyaline Cartilage

Structure: large amount of collagen fibers evenly distributed in proteoglycan matrix. Smooth surface in articulations Locations: Found in areas for strong support and some flexibility: rib cage, trachea, and bronchi, articular cartilage In embryo forms most of skeleton Involved in growth that increases bone length

Hyaline cartilage

Elastic Cartilage
Structure: elastic and collagen fibers embedded in proteoglycans. Rigid but elastic properties Locations: external ears and epiglottis

Fibrocartilage
Structure: thick collagen fibers distributed in proteoglycan matrix; slightly compressible and very tough Locations: found in areas of body where a great deal of pressure is applied to joints Discs of knee joint, pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs

Connective Tissue: Bone

Hard connective tissue composed of living cells (osteocytes) and mineralized matrix Matrix: gives strength and rigidity; allows bone to support and protect other tissues and organs
Organic: collagen fibers Inorganic: hydroxyapetite (Ca plus PO4)

Osteocytes located in lacunae Types

Cancellous or spongy bone Compact bone

Stores calcium, minerals, and fat Marrow (center/substance) inside bones is the site of hematopoiesis

Bone, cont.

Cancellous or spongy bone: trabeculae of bone with spaces between. Looks like a sponge. Found inside bones. Compact bone: arranged in concentric circle layers around a central canal which contains a blood vessel. Found on periphery of bones.

BoneHaversian canal

Blood
Matrix: plasma
Liquid and lacks fibers.

Formed elements: red cells, white cells, and platelets Functions in the transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, and wastes

Muscle Tissue

Muscle Tissue
Characteristics Cells are referred to as fibers; some types are multinucleated Contracts or shortens with force when stimulated Moves entire body and pumps blood Types Skeletal: most attached to skeleton, but some attached to other types of connective tissue. Striated and voluntary. Cardiac: muscle of the heart. Striated and involuntary. Smooth: muscle associated with tubular structures and with the skin. Nonstriated and involuntary.

Skeletal Muscle

Cardiac Muscle

Smooth Muscle

Nervous Tissues

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Neurons or nerve cells have the ability to produce action potentials Parts: Cell body: contains nucleus Axon: cell process; conducts impulses away from cell body; usually only one per neuron Dendrite: cell process; receive impulses from other neurons; can be many per neuron Types: Multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar Found in brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input: Monitor internal and external stimuli 2. Integration. Brain and spinal cord process sensory input and initiate responses 3. Motor output: Controls of muscles and glands 4. Homeostasis. Regulate and coordinate physiology 5. Mental activity. Consciousness, thinking, memory, emotion

The Nervous System

Components
Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors

Subdivisions
Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS): sensory receptors and nerves

The Neuron
The human body contains billions of neurons
Basic structural unit of the nervous system
Specialized cells conduct electrical impulses along the plasma membrane Nerve impulse Action potential

Figure 48.15 Diversity in nervous systems

Figure 48.16 The nervous system of a vertebrate

Figure 48.18 The main roles of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves in regulating internal body functions

Figure 48.19 Embryonic development of the brain

Neurons

The Neuron
Other special characteristics
Longevity can live and function for a lifetime Do not divide fetal neurons lose their ability to undergo mitosis; neural stem cells are an exception High metabolic rate require abundant oxygen and glucose

Cells of Nervous System

Neurons or nerve cells receive stimuli and transmit action potentials

Organization
Cell body or soma Dendrites: input Axons: output

Neuroglia or glial cells

Support and protect neurons

Neurons (Nerve Cells)

Figure 11.4b

Nerves
Endoneurium layer of delicate connective tissue surrounding the axon Nerve fascicles groups of axons bound into bundles Perineurium connective tissue wrapping surrounding a nerve fascicle Epineurium whole nerve is surrounded by tough fibrous sheath

Structure of a Nerve

Figure 12.16a

 Cell Body. Nucleus, Nissl Bodies. Contains nucleus and nucleolus Major biosynthetic center No centrioles (hence its amitotic nature) Nissl bodies = chromatophilic substance = rough E.R: primary site of protein synthesis. Tapers to form axon hillock Dendrites: short, often highly branched. Receptive regions of the neuron Axons. Can branch to form collaterals. Axon hillock: Initial segment: beginning of axon Axoplasm - cytoplasm of the axon Axolemma - membrane of the axon Presynaptic terminals (terminal boutons)

Parts of the Neuron

Axonic Transport Mechanisms

Anterograde: Toward axonal terminal. Axoplasm moved from cell body toward terminals. Supply for growth, repair, renewal. Can move cytoskeletal proteins, organelles away from cell body toward axon terminals. Retrograde: Away from axonal terminal. Into cell body: damaged organelles, recycled plasma membrane, and substances taken in by endocytosis can be transported up axon to cell body. Rabies and herpes virus can enter axons in damaged skin and be transported to CNS.

Types of Neurons
Functional classification
Sensory or afferent: action potentials toward CNS Motor or efferent: action potentials away from CNS Interneurons or association neurons: within CNS from one neuron to another

Structural classification
Multipolar: most neurons in CNS; motor neurons Bipolar: sensory in retina of the eye and nose Unipolar: single process that divides into two branches. Part that extends to the periphery has dendrite-like sensory receptors

Neurons Classified by Function

Figure 12.11

Neuroglia of CNS: Astrocytes

Processes form feet that cover the surfaces of neurons and blood vessels and the pia mater. Regulate what substances reach the CNS from the blood (bloodbrain barrier). Lots of microfilaments for support. Produce chemicals that promote tight junctions to form blood-brain barrier
Blood-brain barrier: protects neurons from toxic substances, allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products between neurons and blood, prevents fluctuations in the composition of the blood from affecting the functions of the brain.

Regulate extracellular brain fluid composition

Neuroglia of CNS: Ependymal Cells

Line brain ventricles and spinal cord central canal. Specialized versions of ependymal form choroid plexuses. Choroid plexus within certain regions of ventricles. Secrete cerebrospinal fluid. Cilia help move fluid thru the cavities of the brain.

Neuroglia of CNS: Microglia and Oligodendrocytes

Microglia: specialized macrophages. Respond to inflammation, phagocytize necrotic tissue, microorganisms, and foreign substances that invade the CNS. Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheaths if surround axon. Single oligodendrocytes can form myelin sheaths around portions of several axons.

Neuroglia of PNS

Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes: wrap around portion of only one axon to form myelin sheath. Wrap around many times. During development, as cells grow around axon, cytoplasm is squeezed out and multiple layers of cell membrane wrap the axon. Cell membrane primarily phospholipid. Satellite cells: surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia, provide support and nutrients

Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons

Myelinated axons
Myelin protects and insulates axons from one another, speeds transmission, functions in repair of axons. Not continuous Nodes of Ranvier Completion of Development of myelin sheaths at 1 yr. Degeneration of myelin sheaths occurs in multiple sclerosis and some cases of diabetes mellitus.

Unmyelinated axons: rest in invaginations of Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes. Not wrapped around the axon; gray matter.

Regions of the Brain & SC White vs. Gray Matter

White matter: dense collections of myelinated axons. Gray matter: unmyelinated axons, cell bodies, dendrites, neuroglia. Integrative functions In brain: gray is outer cortex as well as inner nuclei; white is deeper. In spinal cord: white is outer, gray is deeper.

Nerve Fiber Types

Type A: large-diameter, myelinated. Conduct at 15-120 m/s. Motor neurons supplying skeletal and most sensory neurons Type B: medium-diameter, lightly myelinated. Conduct at 3-15 m/s. Part of ANS Type C: small-diameter, unmyelinated. Conduct at 2 m/s or less. Part of ANS

The Synapse
Junction between two cells Site where action potentials in one cell cause action potentials in another cell Types of cells in synapse
Presynaptic Postsynaptic

Synapses
Elaborate cell junctions Axodendritic synapses representative type Synaptic vesicles on presynaptic side
Membrane-bound sacs containing neurotransmitters Mitochondria abundant in axon terminals

Synaptic cleft separates the plasma membrane of the two neurons

Electrical Synapses
Gap junctions that allow local current to flow between adjacent cells. Connexons: protein tubes in cell membrane. Found in cardiac muscle and many types of smooth muscle. Action potential of one cell causes action potential in next cell, almost as if the tissue were one cell. Important where contractile activity among a group of cells

Chemical Synapses
Components
Presynaptic terminal Synaptic cleft Postsynaptic membrane

Neurotransmitters released by action potentials in presynaptic terminal

Synaptic vesicles: action potential causes Ca 2+ to enter cell that causes neurotransmitter to be released from vesicles Diffusion of neurotransmitter across synapse Postsynaptic membrane: when ACh binds to receptor, ligand-gated Na+ channels open. If enough Na+ diffuses into postsynaptic cell, it fires.

Chemical Synapse

Some Important Types of Synapses

Figure 12.7

Figure 48.4 Structural diversity of neurons

Figure 48.5 Schwann cells

Figure 48.11 Saltatory conduction

Figure 48.12 A chemical synapse

Figure 48.13 Integration of multiple synaptic inputs

Table 48.1 The Major Known Neurotransmitters

Figure 2.18 Molecular shape and brain chemistry

Figure 48.20 The main parts of the human brain

Figure 48.20x1 Cerebral cortex, gray and white matter

Figure 48.20x2 Cerebral cortex

Figure 48.21 The reticular formation

Figure 48.24 Structure and functional areas of the cerebrum

Figure 48.27 The limbic system

PNS receptors: ending of neurons or Sensory

separate, specialized cells that detect such things as temperature, pain, touch, pressure, light, sound, odors Nerve: a bundle of axons and their sheaths that connects CNS to sensory receptors, muscles, and glands
Cranial nerves: originate from the brain; 12 pairs Spinal nerves: originate from spinal cord; 31 pairs

Ganglion: collection of neuron cell bodies outside CNS Plexus: extensive network of axons, and sometimes neuron cell bodies, located outside CNS

Figure 48.17 Functional hierarchy of the peripheral nervous system

Divisions of PNS
Sensory (afferent): transmits action potentials from receptors to CNS. Motor (efferent): transmits action potentials from CNS to effectors (muscles, glands)

 Somatic nervous system: from CNS to skeletal muscles.

Voluntary. Single neuron system. Synapse: junction of a nerve cell with another cell. E.g., neuromuscular junction is a synapse between a neuron and skeletal muscle cell.

Motor Division of PNS

Autonomic nervous system (ANS): from CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and certain glands.
Subconscious or involuntary control. Two neuron system: first from CNS to ganglion; second from ganglion to effector. Divisions of ANS Sympathetic. Prepares body for physical activity. Parasympathetic. Regulates resting or vegetative functions such as digesting food or emptying of the urinary bladder. Enteric. plexuses within the wall of the digestive tract. Can control the digestive tract independently of the CNS, but still considered part of ANS because of the parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons that contribute to the plexi.