Electromagnetic waves in free space

Poynting Vector
Electromagnetic waves in dielectric
and conducting media
Electromagnetic Waves and
Their Propagation Through the
Atmosphere
3
Plane
Electromagnetic Wave
ELECTRIC FIELD
An Electric field exists in the presence of a charged body
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY (E)
A vector quantity: magnitude and direction (Volts/meter)
MAGNITUDE OF E: Proportional to the force acting on a
unit positive charge at a point in the field

DIRECTION OF E: The direction that the force acts
The Electric Field (E) is represented by drawing the Electric
Displacement Vector (D), which takes into account the
characteristics of the medium within which the Electric Field
exists.
( ) E m coul D c =
2
c, the Electric Conductive Capacity or Permittivity, is related
to the ability of a medium, such as air to store electrical potential
energy.
1 1 2 12
0
10 850 . 8

= m joule coul c
Vacuum:
1 1 2 12
1
10 876 . 8

= m joule coul c
Air:
Ratio:
003 . 1
0
1
=
c
c
The Electric Displacement Vector, D, is used to draw
lines of force.
2
m coul Units of D:
MAGNETIC FIELD
A Magnetic field exists in the presence of a current
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY (H)
A vector quantity: magnitude and direction (amps/meter)
MAGNITUDE OF H: Proportional to the current

DIRECTION OF H: The direction that a compass needle
points in a magnetic field
The Magnetic Field (H) is represented by drawing the Magnetic
Induction Vector (B), which takes into account the
characteristics of the medium within which the current flows.
H B =
, the Magnetic Inductive Capacity, or Permeability, is related
to the ability of a medium, such as air, to store magnetic potential
energy.
1 2 6
0
10 260 . 1

= m amp joule
Vacuum:
Air:
Ratio:
000 . 1
0
1
=

1 2 6
1
10 260 . 1

= m amp joule
Magnetic Fields:
Magnetic fields associated with moving charges
(electric currents)
B I Force =
I: Current
( ) amps or s coul
1
B: Magnetic Induction
( )
2 1
m amp joule
Magnetic Field Lines are
closed loops surrounding
the currents that produce
them
Maxwells Equations for time varying
electric and magnetic fields in free space
0
c

= - V E
t
B
E
c
c
= V
0 = - V B
t
E
I B
c
c
+ = V
0 0 0
c
(where is the charge density)
Simple interpretation
Divergence of electric field is a function
of charge density
A closed loop of E field lines will exist when
the magnetic field varies with time
Divergence of magnetic field =0
(closed loops)
A closed loop of B field lines will exist in
The presence of a current and/or
time varying electric field
Electromagnetic Waves: A solution to Maxwells Equations
Electric and Magnetic Force Fields
Propagate through a vacuum at the speed of light:
1 8
10 3

= s m c
Electric and Magnetic Fields propagate as waves:
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
= i
c
r
t f i
r
A
t r E t
| u
| u 2 exp
) , (
) , , , (
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
r
t f
r
A
t r E t
| u
| u 2 cos
) , (
) , , , (
) sin( ) cos( ) exp( x i x ix + =
where:
or:
r, u, | are coordinates, A is an amplitude factor, f is the frequency and + is
an arbitrary phase
Electromagnetic waves:
Interact with matter in four ways:
Reflection:
Refraction:
Scattering:
Diffraction:
Electromagnetic Waves are characterized by:
Wavelength, [m, cm, mm, m etc]

Frequency, f [s
-1
, hertz (hz), megahertz (Mhz), gigahertz (Ghz)

where: c = f
All energy
stored in
electric
field
All energy
stored in
magnetic
field
wavelength
Time variations in charge, voltage and current in a simple Dipole Antenna
Energy is 1) stored in E, B fields, 2) radiated as EM waves, 3) Dissipated as heat in antenna
Near antenna: Energy stored in induction fields (E, B fields) >> energy radiated

More than a few
from antenna: Energy radiated >> energy stored in induction fields
Pt. A
Pt. B
Polarization of electromagnetic waves
The polarization is specified by the orientation of the electromagnetic field.

The plane containing the electric field is called the plane of polarization.
( ) ft E E
xm x
t 2 cos =
For a monochromatic wave:
( ) o t + = ft E E
ym y
2 cos
Electric field will oscillate in the x,y plane with z as the propagation direction
where f is the frequency and o is the phase difference between E
xm
and E
ym
and the coordinate x is
parallel to the horizon, y normal to x, and z in the direction of propagation.
If E
ym
= 0, Electric field oscillates in the x direction
and wave is said to be horizontally polarized
If E
xm
= 0, Electric field oscillates in the y direction
and wave is said to be vertically polarized
If E
xm
= E
ym
, and o = t/2 or - t/2, electric field vector
rotates in a circle and wave is circularly polarized
All other situations: E field rotates as an ellipse
Propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere
Speed of light in a vacuum:
0 0
1
c
= c
Speed of light in air:
1 1
1
c
= v
Refractive index:
1 1
0 0
c
c
= =
v
c
n
At sea level: n = 1.003
In space: n = 1.000
Radio refractivity:
( )
6
10 1 = n N
At sea level: N = 3000
In space: N = 0
The Refractive Index is related to:
1. Density of air (a function of
dry air pressure (P
d
), temperature (T), vapor pressure (e)
2. The polarization of molecules in the air
(molecules that produce their own electric field
in the absence of external forces)
The water molecule consists of three atoms,
one O and two H. Each H donates an electron
to the O so that each H carries one positive
charge and the O carries two negative charges,
creating a polar molecule one side of the
molecule is negative and the other positive.
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+ =

2
1 2 1 6 1 5
375 . 0 10 6 . 5 10 76 . 7 1
T
e
mb K
T
e
mb K
T
P
mb K n
d
Snells law:
n - An
n
i
r
V
i

V
r

r
i
V
V
r
i
n
n n
= =
A
sin
sin
Where: i is the angle of incidence
r is the angle of refraction
V
i
is the velocity of light in medium n
V
r
is the velocity of light in medium n - An
In the atmosphere, n normally decreases continuously with
height

Therefore: due to refraction, electromagnetic rays propagating
upward away from a radar will bend toward the
earths surface
Earth curvature
Electromagnetic ray propagating away from the radar will
rise above the earths surface due to the earths curvature.
Equation governing the path of a ray in the earths atmosphere:
0
1 1 1 2
2 2
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+

dh
dn
n h R R
h R
ds
dh
dh
dn
n h R ds
h d
where R is the radius of the earth, h is the height of the beam above the
earths surface, and s is distance along the earths surface.
To simplify this equation we will make three approximations
1. Large earth approximation R h R ~ +
2. Small angle approximation
1 tan << ~ = | |
ds
dh
3. Refractive index ~ 1 in term:
n
1
0
1 1 1 2
2 2
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+

dh
dn
n h R R
h R
ds
dh
dh
dn
n h R ds
h d
X
1
X X
1/R 1
dh
dn
R ds
h d
+ =
1
2
2
Approximate equation for the path of a ray at small angles
relative to the earths surface:
dh
dn
R ds
d
+ =
1 |
Or, in terms of the elevation angle of the beam
Height of a ray due to earths curvature and standard atmospheric refraction
Anomalous propagation occurs when the index of refraction
decreases rapidly with height in the lowest layers of the
atmosphere
Recall that the Refractive Index is related to:
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+ =

2
1 2 1 6 1 5
375 . 0 10 6 . 5 10 76 . 7 1
T
e
mb K
T
e
mb K
T
P
mb K n
d
n decreases rapidly when T
increases with height and/or e
decreases with with height in
the lowest layer
27
Electromagnetic waves
Consider propagation in a homogeneous medium (no
absorption) characterized by a dielectric constant
o
c
c
_ =
c
o
= permittivity of free space
28
Electromagnetic waves
Maxwells equations are, in a region of no free charges,
t
E
t
E
j B
t
B
E
B
E
o o
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ = V
c
c
= V
= V
= = V

c t c
t
4
0
0 4
Gauss law electric field
from a charge distribution
No magnetic monopoles
Electromagnetic induction
(time varying magnetic field
producing an electric field)
Magnetic fields being induced
By currents and a time-varying
electric fields

o
= permeability of free space (medium is diamagnetic)
29
Electromagnetic waves
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2 2
t
E
B
t
E E E E
o
c
c
= V
c
c
=
V = V V V = V V

c
0
2
2
2
=
c
c
V
t
E
E
o

c
or,
For the electric field E,
i.e. wave equation with v
2
= 1/
o
c
30
Electromagnetic waves
0
2
2
2
=
c
c
V
t
B
B
o

c
Similarly for the magnetic field
i.e. wave equation with v
2
= 1/
o
c
In free space, c = _ c
o
= c
o
(_ = 1)
o o
c
c
1
= c = 3.0 X 10
8
m/s
31
Electromagnetic waves
In a dielectric medium, _ = n
2
and c = _ c
o
= n
2
c
o

n
c
n
v
o o o
= = =
c c
1 1
32
Electromagnetic waves: Phase relations
0
2
2
2
=
c
c
V
t
E
E
o

c
0
2
2
2
=
c
c
V
t
B
B
o

c
The solutions to the wave equations,
can be plane waves,
( )
( ) o e
e
+

=
=
t i
o
t i
o
e B B
e E E
r k
r k

33
Irradiance (energy per unit volume)
Energy density stored in
an electric field

Energy density stored in
a magnetic field
3
2
,
2
1
m
J
E u
o E
c =
3
2
,
2
1
m
J
B u
o
B

=
c
E
B =
3
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
m
J
E
c
E
u
o
o
B
c

= =
34
Energy density
2
E u u u
o B E
c = + =
Now if E = E
o
sin(t+) and is very large

We will see only a time average of E
( ) ( )
2
1
sin
1
sin
2 2
= + = +
}
+
dt t
T
t
T t
t
e e
2
2
1
o o
E u c =
35
Intensity or Irradiance
k

In free space, wave propagates with speed c

c t
A
In time t, all energy in this volume passes through A.
Thus, the total energy passing through A is,
Joules tA c u A =
36
Intensity or Irradiance
cA u
t
P =
A

=
Power passing through A is,
Define: Intensity or Irradiance as the power per unit area
2
2
1
o o
E c I
c u I
c =
=
37
Intensity in a dielectric medium
n
c
v and
o
= = _c c
In a dielectric medium,
Consequently, the irradiance or intensity is,
2
2
1
o
E v I c =
38
Poynting vector
Define
( )
( ) H E c S
cB E c S
E c S
o o
o
o
c
c
c
2
2
=
=
=
39
Poynting vector
B E S
Vector Poynting H E S
o


=
=

1
For an isotropic media energy flows in the direction of propagation, so
both the magnitude and direction of this flow is given by,
( ) H E S t I I

= = =
The corresponding intensity or irradiance is then,
40
Example: Lasers
Spot diameter Intensity (W/m
2
) Electric field
magnitude (V/m)
2 mm 1.6 X 10
3
1.1 X 10
3

20 m (e.g. focus
by lens of eye)
1.6 X 10
7
1.1 X 10
5

2 m 1.6 X 10
9
1.1 X 10
6

Laser Power = 5mW
nb. Colossal dielectric constant material CaCu
3
Ti
4
O
12
, _ = 10,000 at 300K

Subramanian et al. J. Solid State Chem. 151, 323 (2000)
Near breakdown
voltage in water
c
c
c
I
E
E c I
o
o
2
2
1
2
=
=
Same as
sunlight at
earth
c
o
= 8.854 X 10
-12
CV
-1
m
-1
(SI units)
Waves in a Conducting Medium
(Ohms Law) For a medium of conductivity o,
Modified Maxwell:

Put

E j

o =
t
E
E
t
E
j H
c
c
+ =
c
c
+ = . V

c o c
E i E H k i

c e o + = .
conduction
current
displacement
current
)] ( exp[ )] ( exp[
0 0
x k t i B B x k t i E E

= = e e
ec
o
= D
4
0
8 -
12
0
7
10 57 . 2 1 . 2 , 10 3 : Teflon
10 , 10 8 . 5 : Copper

= = =
= = =
D
D
c c o
c c o
Dissipation
factor
Attenuation in a Good Conductor
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) 0 since
with Combine
2
2
= + =
+ =
+ = . = . .
= .
c
c
= . V
E k i k
E i E k k E k
E i H k E k k
H E k
t
B
E

c e o e
c e o e
c e o e e
e
E i E H k i

c e o + = .
For a good conductor D >> 1,
( ) i k i k ~ ~ >> 1
2
,
2
o e
o e ec o
( )
depth - skin the is
2
where
1
1
, exp exp is form Wave
o e
o
o o o
e
=
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
i k
x x
t i
copper.mov
water.mov
Charge Density in a Conducting Material
Inside a conductor (Ohms law)
Continuity equation is



Solution is
E j

o =

c
o
o

+
c
c
= = V +
c
c

= V +
c
c
t
E
t
j
t
0
0

c o

t
e

=
0
So charge density decays exponentially with time. For a
very good conductor, charges flow instantly to the surface
to form a surface charge density and (for time varying
fields) a surface current. Inside a perfect conductor (o)
E=H=0