FUNDAMENTALS

OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat Transfer Basics:

Mechanisms of Heat transfer:
3 Distinct ways of Heat Transfer:

1. Conduction
2. Convection 3. Radiation

Heat Transfer Basics:

Conduction:
Conduction Heat Transfer:
Transfer of heat through fixed material

Fourier Equation governs:

Q = - kA dT dX Flow Potential / Resistance
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Conduction:
Flow Conductance x Potential

Q = Q/ = Conductance x t
Conductance Area/Thickness A/L

k A
L

Q = kA t L

; K = QL/A t Kcal/hr mC

Conduction:
Conduction:
Touching Boiling water pot cover plate with a finger: Temperature of hot surface 95 C Temp of cold (body) surface - 35 C Thermal conductivity of the metal 46 Kcal/hrmC Area of the finger = 1cmx1cm = 0.0001m2 Q = 0.0001 x 46 x (95-35) Total heat transferred to the finger is =

276 Cal/hr
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Convection
Heat Transfer between solids & liquid/vapor by

mixing.
Natural Convection Forced Convection Convection equation form:

dQ = hAdt
h - proportionality constant

Convection
Flow Potential / Resistance
Resistance , R = L/k hr m2 C/ Kcal

Q = Ai( Ti- tp ) Ri

Ao( Tw- to ) Ro

Q = hiAiti

= hoAoto

hi & ho - Heat Transfer Coefficients= Kcal/hrm2C

Convection
Flow Characterization:
1. Velocity
2. Density 3. Viscosity 4. Diameter of tube Reynolds Number - Ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. NRe - D/ -Dimensionless constant
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Convection
Flow Characterization:

1.Laminar flow 2.Transition flow 3.Turbulent flow

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Convection
Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient: hi Dittus- Boelter Equation: hi = 0.023 (k/Di) (D/)0.8 (Cp /k) 0.33 k , Cp , & increases hi increases

Di , increases

- hi decreases

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Convection
Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient: ho

Kern Equation:

ho = 0.36 (k/De) (De /)0.55 (Cp /k) 0.33(/ w)0.14

(/ w)0.14 negligible k , Cp , & increases - ho increases De , increases ho decreases

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Conduction & Convection

Combined Conduction & Convection:
Q/A = Th-Tc
=

Keff (Th-Tc )

(L1/k1+L2/k2+L3/k3)

Q/A =

Th-Tc

= U(Th-Tc )

(1/hi+x/ktube+1/ho)

Or

Q = UA t
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Conduction & Convection

For round Geometry:

U =

1/hi(ro/ri)+(rologe(ro/ri)/ ktube) +1/ho

Including Fouling Resistances:

U=
1

1/hi(ro/ri)+(rologe(ro/ri)/ ktube) +1/ho +(Rfi(ro/ri)+Rfo)

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Heat Transfer Basics

Important Dimensional groups

NRe ,Nnu , NPr ,

1. NNuNusselt

Number:

Ratio of convective HTC to HTC for pure conduction.

NNu = hD/k
2. NprPrandtl Number:

Ratio of momentum to energy diffusion.

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Condensation
Modes of Condensation:
4 basic modes of condensation generally recognized. 1. Drop wise condensation 2. Film wise condensation 3. Direct Contact condensation 4. Homogeneous condensation

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Condensation
Drop wise condensation:

Surface not strongly wetted by the liquid High heat transfer coefficient Unstable Unpredictable Effective only under desirable conditions

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Condensation
Film wise condensation:

Usual mode of operation

Applicable for normal condensers HTC are 4 to 8 time less than DWC

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Condensation
Direct Contact Condensation:

Very efficient process Direct mixing with condensate & coolant

Application:

Coolant and condensate can be separated easily

No desire to reuse the condensate

Coolant and condensate or same substance

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Condensation
Homogeneous Condensation:
Liquid phase formed directly from the super saturated vapors

Away from any macroscopic surface.

Dirt or mist particles to serve as nucleation sites

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Boiling:
Boiling

Pool boiling Flow Boiling

Temperature difference , liquid prop and nature of surface

Natural convection boiling

Nucleate Boiling
Transition boiling Film boiling
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Boiling:
Natural convection Boling:
Temperature Difference less than 10F No bubble formation

HTC are characterized by natural convection

Nucleate Boiling:
Bubble formation at preferred location High heat transfer coefficient Desired operation and equipment design
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Boiling:
Transition boiling:
Unstable and undesirable operation Avoid equipment design and operation

t between surface and liquid will increase

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Boiling:
Film boiling:

Stable film formation around the surface

t between wall & liquid will be higher

Hot spots and thermal degradation of boiling fluid

Low heat flux and high skin temperatures

Lower heat transfer coefficient

Fouling accentuated in the film boiling regime

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Boiling:
Flow boiling:

Agitation caused by flow fluid

Very high velocity

Combination of convective HT + boiling HT

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Boiling:
Critical heat Flux:
Temperature driving force increases, the flux increases to a maximum value that is called the critical heat flux.

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Process Gas Boiler

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vaporization:
Vaporization during flow:
1. Thermosiphon reboiler
2. Forced circulation reboiler

Thermosiphon reboiler:
Natural convection Predominant Heat transfer by nucleate boiling

Higher heat transfer coefficient

Improper design lead to film boiling Higher the flow better the heat transfer
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vaporization:
Forced circulation reboiler: Nucleate boiling will not be appreciable Heat transfer by turbulent eddies Higher heat transfer coefficient

Film boiling at higher wall temperature

Mist flow of vapor lead to less HTC
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Flow Regime:
Flow Regime: Gravity forces Vapor shear forces

Gravity : Stratified, Slug-Plug & bubble flow Vapor shear : Wavy, annular , annular mist flow

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Flow Regime
Martinelli Parameter: Xtt = (1-y/y)
0.9

(v/ l)0.5 (l/ v)0.1

Y -Weight Fraction of vapor Xtt is the Martinelli parameter

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Flow Regime:

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Direct Heat Transfer

Direct Contact Towers:

transfer:

Cooling

Heat Transfer between gases & liquid

Surface area is not important

No Fouling resistance
Higher Heat transfer coefficient Uniform thermal performance

Application:
Humidification of air, Cooling the water
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Mean Temperature Difference (MTD)

Temperature Difference:

Influence Heat Transfer system.

heat transfer directly proportional

Parallel flow:
Two fluids travel in same direction

Counter flow:
Two fluids travel in opposite direction
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Mean Temperature Difference (MTD)

Temperature Difference:
Q = UA t
dQ = W1CpdT1 = W2Cpdt1

For Counter current flow :

(Tin-tout) (Tout-tin) MTD =
Loge(Tin - tout)/(Tout - tin)
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Mean Temperature Difference (MTD)

For Co-current flow :
(Tin- tin) (Tout- tout) MTD =
Loge (Tin- tin)/(Tout- tout)

(t1) (t2)

LMTD =

Loge(t1)/(t2)

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Temperature Difference (LMTD)

Correction for Multi Pass Flow : - F factor :

To account non idealities of various flow arrangements

F = MTD /LMTD , R = Range of Shell side fluid / Range of tube side fluid

R = T1-T2 / t2-t1
P = Range of tube side fluid/Maximum temp diff

P = t2-t1 /T1-t1
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Temperature Difference (LMTD)

Effective (EMTD)

Temperature

Driving

Force

EMTD = LMTD + Correction factors.

Shell side bypass streams like C, E and F stream Fluid by pass around edges of Longitudinal baffles (G & F Shells)
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Temperature Cross
Temperature Crossover:
If Cold outlet temp > Hot outlet temp - Temp cross.

Guidelines:
If F <0.8 , consider more exchanger. If cross cold outlet hot outlet > is Grater than 5 -10% of
LMTD , more than one exchanger is req.

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Temperature Cross

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Temperature Cross

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Temperature Cross
HNUU Combined Feed Exchanger (221- S01):
335 315 295
Temperature in Deg C

Chart to find out Cross Pinch for CFE (221-S01)

Shell A

Shell B Hot curve

275 255 235 215 195 175 155 135

Points

Shell C

Shell D Cold curve Shell E

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Heat Exchanger

Shell & Tube Exchanger

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Heat Exchanger: Thermal Design

Objective of Thermal Design:
Achieve the specified duty at minimum cost
Highest overall heat transfer coefficient with in allowed pressure drops Vibration free

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Heat Exchanger: Thermal Design

Design data:
Stream flow rates with inlet/outlet temperatures Operating pressure and allowable pressure drop Physical properties and fouling resistances Design pressure and temperatures Heat Exchanger type Material of construction and corrosion allowance Size or space limitations

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Heat Exchanger: Thermal Design

Type of Exchangers:
Shell & Tube Air Cooled Double pipe Plate and Frame

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Heat Exchanger: Thermal Design

Heat Exchanger Diagram

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S & T:Tube Pitch

Feature Lower Delta P on shell side Shell side fouling Horizontal shell side boiling

Use Pattern Square (Effective only at low Nre) Square easier Cleaning Square prevent vapor blanketing

Decrease shell size

Triangular pitch
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S & T: Baffle selection

Types Of baffles:
Single segmental baffles Double segmental baffles NTIW Baffles Triple Segmental baffles

Philips Rod baffles

Helical Baffles
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S & T: Baffle selection

Single segmental baffle: Larger baffle cut:
Lower Delta P Smaller cross flow, worse heat transfer Larger shell and tube sheet diameter More expensive

Smaller baffle cut:

Higher shell side delta P Higher acceleration loss through window Used to avoid damage to tubes
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S & T: Baffle selection

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S & T: Baffle selection

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Helical Baffles:

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Helical Baffles:

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S & T: Fluid Allocation

Criteria for placing the fluid in shell tube side:

High Pressure fluids The more corrosive fluids Heavy Fouling fluids High Viscous fluids
Higher single phase flow (ratio:>2/1)

- Tube side - Tube side - Tube side - Shell side

larger flow rate should be placed on shell side.

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Plate & Frame Exchanger

Plate and Frame Excahnger

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Plate and Frame Exchangers

Plate & Frame Exchanger:
Pressed corrugated metal plates with thick frame.

Plate flow channel is sealed with gasket or welded.

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Plate and Frame Exchangers

Features & Benefits:

High thermal efficiency & HTC
Handling fouling fluids
Higher surface area

Limitations:
Working temp up to 120 C and 15 Kgcm2 Gasket temp limits the fluid type handling Less suitable for two phase flow
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Plate and Frame Exchangers

Limitations:

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Fin Fan Cooler

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Fin Fan Coolers

Why Air Cooled Exchangers required?.

Water scarcity
More economical High Capex, lower operating cost No utility piping & water treatment Unlimited capacity Cooling air free & natural convection Less air side fouling
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Fin Fan Coolers

Forced draft :
Lower horse power Better accessibility for maintenance Less and easy maintenance

Induced draft :
No hot air re circulation Good air distribution

Bundle is protected by plenum & fan

Improve natural draft
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Fin Fan Cooler

Fin Types:
There are 4 types of fins 1. Embedded Fin 2. Extruded

3. Footed(L-Foot)
4. Tension wrapped
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Fin Fan Coolers

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FIRED HEATER

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Heater: Radiation section

Heat Transfer between 2 bodies not in contact
Q = T4 Q- Radiant Energy rate
- Stefan Boltzman constant 0.173x10-8 Btu/hrft2R4 T - Absolute Temperature

dQ = dAT4
Emissivity factor
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Fired Heaters
Heaters used for (Refineries):

Upstream of reactors
Fractionation

Black oil cracking Miscellaneous specialty heaters

Description:
Radiant Section Convection section Refractory Burners Stack
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Fired Heaters

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Fired Heaters

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Fired Heaters
Types of Heaters:

Vertical Cylindrical Cabin & cabin with center wall Vertical tube box Single & double fired Utube

Heat Distribution in Fire Box:

Flame Radiation

Convection
Hot Gas Radiation (combustion products) Refractory reflection , Mirror Effect
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Fired Heaters Radiation section

Important Parameters:
Forced Draft
Induced Draft Balanced Draft Higher heating value Lower heating value Bridge wall temp Coil outlet temperature (COT)

Cross over temperature (COT)

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Fired Heaters Combustion

Combustion: Three elements of combustion Fuel

Air Ignition source

Combustible materials:

Carbon Hydrogen Sulfur

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Fired Heaters Heat Distribution

Heat Distribution in Heater:
Flame radiation Hot Gas radiation Convection in radiant box Refractory reflection Convection Air Pre-heater - 14% - 28% - 6% - 12 % - 25% - 8%

Heat losses in Heater

Flue gas Insulation Total - 5% - 2% - 100%
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Fired Heaters LOBO Evans Method

Bridge Wall Temp.
Flue gas radiant exit temperature Excellent indication of radiant section
performance

Radiant flux rate and tube wall temp.

How hard heater is operating

Normal range : 760 820C , Max. 870 to 895C
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Fired Heaters Combustion

Fuel effects :
H2 Content

Heating value change

Thermal Efficiency:
% = Total absorbed X100

Total heat input

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