Heat Transfer & Thermodynamics

Heat Transfer
S. Y. B. Tech. Prod Engg.

Heat Transfer
ME0223 SEM-IV Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Engines
Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Engines
S.Y. B. Tech.
ME0223 SEM - IV
Production Engineering

Heat Transfer
S. Y. B. Tech. Prod Engg. ME0223 SEM-IV Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Engines
Outline
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Transfer by conduction through plane wall,
Radial Heat Transfer by Conduction through hollow Cylinder / Sphere. Conduction
through Composite Plane and Cylindrical Wall.

Heat flow by Convection. Free and Forced Convection. Nusselt, Reynolds and Prandtl
Numbers. Heat Transfer between two fluids separated by Composite Plane and
Cylindrical wall. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.

Heat Exchangers, types of Heat Exchangers, Log Mean Temperature Difference.

Radiation Heat Transfer, Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity, Monochromatic
Emissive Power, Weins Law, Stefan-Boltzmans Law and Kirchoffs Law.

Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
HEAT TRANSFER is a science that seeks to predict the energy transfer that may
take place between material bodies, as a result of temperature difference.
Heat Transfer RATE is the desired objective of an analysis that points out the
difference between Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is dealt with equilibrium, and does not predict how fast the
change will take place.
Heat Transfer supplements the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics, with
additional rules to analyse the Energy Transfer RATES.

Heat Transfer
Conduction Heat Transfer
Fourier Law :
Heat Transfer (HT) Rate per unit cross sectional (c/s) area is proportional
to the Temperature Gradient.
x
T
A
q
c
c
o
x
T
A k q
c
c
=
Q = HT Rate,
T/T = Temperature Gradient in the direction of Heat Flow.
k =Constant of Proportionality, known as THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, (W/mC)
NOTE : Negative sign is to indicate that Heat flows from High Temperature to
Low Temperature region, i.e. to satisfy Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Heat Transfer
Heat Conduction through Plane Wall :
q
x
q
x+dx

x dx
A
q
gen
= q
i
A dx
Generalised Case :
1. Temperature changes with time.
2. Internal Heat Sources.
Energy Balance gives;
Energy conducted in left face + Heat generated within element
= Change in Internal Energy + Energy conducted out right face.
Energy in left face =
Energy generated within element =
Change in Internal Energy =
Energy out right face =
x
T
A k q
x
c
c
=
dx A q
i
dx
T
A c
t
c
c
(
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
(
(
c
c
=
+
+
dx
x
T
k
x x
T
k A
x
T
A k q
dx x
dx x

Heat Transfer
Heat Conduction through Plane Wall :
q
x
q
x+dx

x dx
A
q
gen
= q
i
A dx
Combining the terms;
(
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
= +
c
c
dx
x
T
k
x x
T
k A dx
T
A c dx A q
x
T
A k
i
t
c
c
= +
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c T
c q
x
T
k
x
i
This is One Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation
t
c
c
= +
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c T
c q
z
T
k
z y
T
k
y x
T
k
x
i z y x
For Constant Thermal Conductivity, k
x
= k
y
= k
z
= k
t o c
c
= +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c T
k
q
z
T
y
T
x
T
i
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Where, = ( k / c ) is called Thermal Diffusivity. (m
2
/sec)
() ; () the heat will diffuse through the material.

Heat Transfer
Heat Conduction through Cylinder :
t o | c
c
= +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c T
k
q
z
T T
r r
T
r r
T
i
1 1 1
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
Heat Conduction through Sphere :
( )
t o | u u
u
u u c
c
= +
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c T
k
q T
r
T
r
rT
r r
i
1
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
2
2
2 2 2 2
2
Special Cases :
1. Steady State One Dimensional (No Heat Generation) :
0
2
2
=
dx
T d
2. Steady State One Dimensional, Cylindrical co-ordinates (No Heat Generation) :
0
1
2
2
= +
dr
dT
r dr
T d
3. Steady State One Dimensional, with Heat Generation :
0
2
2
= +
k
q
dx
T d
i

Heat Transfer
Thermal Conductivity
GAS :
Kinetic Energy of the molecules of gas is transmitted from High Temperature
region to that of Low Temperature through continuous random motion,
colliding with one another and exchanging Energy as well as momentum.
LIQUIDS :
Kinetic Energy is transmitted from High Temperature region to that
of Low Temperature by the same mechanism. BUT the situation is
more complex; as the molecules are closely spaced and molecular force
fields exert strong influence on the Energy exchange.
SOLIDS :
(a) Free Electrons : Good Conductors have large number of free
electrons, which transfer electric charge as well as Thermal Energy.
Hence, are known as electron gas. EXCEPTION : Diamond !
(b) Lattice Vibrations : Vibrational Energy in lattice structure of the
material.
NOTE : Mode (a) is predominant than Mode (b).

Heat Transfer
SOLIDS :

Heat Transfer
Multilayer Insulation
Alternate Layers of Metal and Non-Metal
Metal having higher Reflectivity.

Heat Transfer
LIQUIDS :

Heat Transfer
GASES :

Heat Transfer
Comparison :

Heat Transfer
Conduction through Plane Wall
q
x
q
x+dx

x dx
A
q
gen
= q
i
A dx
For Const. k; Integration yields ;
) (
1 2
T T
x
kA
q
A
=
For k with some linear relationship, like k = k
0
(1+T);
(
+
A
= ) (
2
) (
2
1
2
2 1 2
T T T T
x
kA
q
|
x
T
A k q
c
c
=
Fouriers Law, Generalised Form

Heat Transfer
Conduction through Composite Wall
C
C
B
B
A
A
x
T T
A k
x
T T
A k
x
T T
A k q
A
=
A
=
A
=
3 4 2 3 1 2
Since Heat Flow through all sections must be SAME ;
Thus, solving the equations would result in,
A k
x
A k
x
A k
x
T T
q
C
C
B
B
A
A
A
+
A
+
A

=
4 1
ELECTRICAL ANALOGY :
1. HT Rate = Heat Flow
2. k, thickness of material & area = Thermal Resistance
3. T = Thermal Potential Difference.
ce sis Thermal
Difference Potential Thermal
Flow Heat
tan Re
=
A
=
th
overall
R
T
q
A B C
1 2 3 4
q q
R
A
R
B
R
C

q
T
1
T
4

A k
x
A
A
A
A k
x
B
B
A
A k
x
C
C
A
T
2
T
3

Heat Transfer
Conduction through Composite Wall
R
A

R
B

R
E

T
1

T
2
T
3

q
R
C

R
D

R
F

R
G

T
4
T
5

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
q
1 2 3 4 5

Heat Transfer
Example 1
An exterior wall of a house is approximated by a 4-in layer of common brick (k=0.7
W/m.C) followed by a 1.5-in layer of Gypsum plaster (k=0.48 W/m.C). What thickness of
loosely packed Rockwool insulation (k=0.065 W/m.C) should be added to reduce the Heat
loss through the wall by 80 % ?
Overall Heat Loss is given by;
A
=
th
R
T
q
= =
insulation with R
insulation without R
insulation without q
insulation with q
th
th
2 . 0
Because the Heat loss with the Rockwool
insulation will be only 20 %, of that before
insulation,
( )( )
( )( )
W C m
k
x
R
W C m
k
x
R
p
b
/ . 079 . 0
48 . 0
0254 . 0 5 . 1
/ . 145 . 0
7 . 0
0254 . 0 4
2
2
= =
A
=
= =
A
= For brick and Plaster, for unit area;
So that the Thermal Resistance without insulation is;
W C m R / . 224 . 0 079 . 0 145 . 0
2
= + =

Heat Transfer
W C m Insulation with R / . 122 . 1
2 . 0
224 . 0
2
= =
Now;
Example 1contd
This is the SUM of the previous value and the Resistance for the Rockwool.
rw
R + = 224 . 0 122 . 1
065 . 0
898 . 0
x
k
x
R
rw
A
=
A
= =
in m x
rw
30 . 2 0584 . 0 = = A ANS

Heat Transfer
Conduction through Radial Systems
Cylinder with;
1. Inside Radius, r
i
.
2. Outside Radius, r
o
.
3. Length, L
4. Temperature Gradient, T
i
-T
o
5. L >> r; Heat Flow in Radial direction only.
Area for Heat Flow;
A
r
= 2rL
Boundary Conditions :
T = T
i
at r = r
i
T = T
o
at r = r
o

Solution to the Equation is;
( )
( )
i o
o i
r r
T T L k
q
/ ln
2
=
t
Fouriers Law will be,
r
T
L r k
r
T
A k q
r
c
c
=
c
c
= t 2
R
A

q
T
i

( )
kL
r r
R
i o
th
t 2
/ ln
=
T
o

r
i

r
o

q
r
dr

Heat Transfer
Conduction through Radial Systems
Thermal Resistance is,
( )
kL
r r
R
i o
th
t 2
/ ln
=
For Composite Cylinder;
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
B B A
k r r k r r k r r
T T L
q
/ / ln / / ln / / ln
2
3 4 2 3 1 2
4 1
+ +

=
t
For Spheres;
( )
o i
o i
r r
T T k
q
1 1
4
=
t
R
A
R
B
R
C

q
T
1
T
4

( )
L k
r r
A
t 2
/ ln
1 2
( )
L k
r r
B
t 2
/ ln
2 3
( )
L k
r r
C
t 2
/ ln
3 4
T
2
T
3

T
1
T
3
T
2
T
4
R
1
R
3
R
2
R
4
q
A
B
C

Heat Transfer
Example 2
T
1
=600 C
T
3
=100 C

T
2 R
1
R
3
R
2
q
Stainless Steel
Asbestos
A thick-walled tube of stainless steel (18% Cr, 8% Ni, k=19 W/m.C) with 2 cm inner
diameter (ID) and 4 cm outer diameter (OD) is covered with a 3 cm layer of asbestos
insulation (k=0.2 W/m.C). If the inside wall temperature of the pipe is maintained at
600 C, calculate the heat loss per meter of length and the tube-insulation interface
temperature.
Heat flow is given by;
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
m W
k r r k r r
T T
L
q
A S
/ 680
2 . 0 / 2 / 5 ln 19 / 1 / 2 ln
) 100 600 ( 2
/ / ln / / ln
) ( 2
2 3 1 2
3 1
=
+

=
+
=
t t
( )
m W
k r r
T T
L
q
A
/ 680
2 / / ln
) (
2 3
3 2
=
=
t
This Heat Flow is used to calculate the tube-insulation
interface temperature as;
T
2
= 595.8 CANS

Heat Transfer
Critical Thickness of Insulation
Consider a layer of Insulation around a circular pipe.
Inner Temperature of Insulator, fixed at T
i

Outer surface exposed to convective environment, T

From Thermal Network;
( )
( )
h r k
r r
T T L
q
o
i o
i
1 / ln
2
+

=
t
Expression to determine the outer radius of Insulation, r
o
for maximum HT;
( )
( )
2
2
1 / ln
1 1
2
0
(
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

= =
h r k
r r
kr
kr
T T L
dr
dq
o
i o
o
o
i
o
t
which gives;
h
k
r =
0
q
T
i

( )
kL
r r
i o
t 2
/ ln
Lh r
o
t 2
1
T

T
i
h, T

R
1
R
2

Heat Transfer
Example 3
Calculate the critical radius of asbestos (k=0.17 W/m.C) surrounding a pipe and
exposed to room air at 20 C with h=3 W/m
2
.

C . Calculate the heat loss from a 200 C, 5
cm diameter pipe when covered with the critical radius of insulation and without
insulation.
cm m
h
k
r 67 . 5 0567 . 0
0 . 3
17 . 0
0
= = = =
Inside radius of the insulation is 5.0/2 = 2.5 cm.
m W
L
q
/ 7 . 105
) 0 . 3 )( 0567 . 0 (
1
17 . 0
) 5 . 2 / 67 . 5 ln(
) 20 200 ( 2
=
+

=
t
Heat Transfer is calculated as;
Without insulation, the convection from the outer surface of the pipe is;
m W T T r h
L
q
i
/ 8 . 84 ) 20 200 )( 025 . 0 )( 2 )( 0 . 3 ( ) )( 2 (
0
= = = t t

Heat Transfer
Example 3contd
Thus, the addition of (5.67-2.5) = 3.17 cm of insulation actually increases the
Heat Transfer by @ 25 %.
Alternatively, if fiberglass (k=0.04 W/m.C) is employed as the insulation
material, it would give;
cm m
h
k
r
o
33 . 1 0133 . 0
0 . 3
04 . 0
= = = =
Now, the value of the Critical Radius is less than the outside radius of the
pipe (2.5 cm). So, addition of any fiberglass insulation would cause a decrease
in the Heat Transfer.

Heat Transfer
Thermal Contact Resistance
Two solid bars in contact.
Sides insulated to assure that Heat flows
in Axial direction only.
Thermal Conductivity may be different.
But Heat Flux through the materials
under Steady State MUST be same.
Actual Temperature profile approx. as
shown.
The Temperature Drop at Plane 2, the
Contact Plane is said to be due to
Thermal Contact Resistance.
A B
x
A
x
B
q
q
T
2A

T
2B

T
3

T
1

x
T
1 2 3

Heat Transfer
Energy Balance gives;
B
B
B
C
B A
A
A
A
x
T T
A k
A h
T T
x
T T
A k q
A
=
A
=
3 2 2 2 2 1
/ 1
A k
x
A h A k
x
T T
q
B
B
C A
A
A
+ +
A

=
1
3 1
No Real Surface is perfectly smooth.
Surface Roughness is exaggerated.
HT at joints can be contributed to :
1. Solid Solid conduction at spots of contact.
2. Conduction through entrapped gases through
the void spaces.
Second factor is the major Resistance to Heat
Flow, as the conductivity of a gas is much lower
than that of a solid.
T
2A

T
2B

T
3

T
1

x
T
1 2 3
A
B

Heat Transfer
Designating;
1. Contact Area, A
c

2. Void Area, A
v

3. Thickness of Void Space, L
g
4. Thermal Conductivity of the Fluid in Void space, k
f

A h
T T
L
T T
A k
A k L A k L
T T
q
C
B A
g
B A
v f
C B g C A g
B A
/ 1 2 / 2 /
2 2 2 2 2 2

=
+
+
=
Total C/s. Area of the bars is A.
Solving for h
c
;
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
f
v
B A
B A C
g
C
k
A
A
k k
k k
A
A
L
h
2 1
Most usually, AIR is the fluid in void spaces.
Hence, k
f
is very small compared to k
A
and k
B.

A
B
L
g

T
2A

T
2B

Heat Transfer
Example 4
Two 3.0 cm diameter 304 stainless steel bars, 10 cm long have ground surface and are
exposed to air with a surface roughness of about 1 m. If the surfaces are pressed
together with a pressure of 50 atm and the two-bar combination is exposed to an overall
temperature difference of 100 C, calculate the axial Heat Flow and Temperature Drop
across the contact surface. Take 1/h
c
=5.28 X 10
-4
m
2
.C/W.
The overall Heat Flow is subject to three resistances,
1. One Conducting Resistance for each bar
2. Contact Resistance.
W C
X kA
x
R
th
/ 679 . 8
) 10 3 ( ) 3 . 16 (
) 4 )( 1 . 0 (
2 2 0
= =
A
=

t
For the bars;
Contact Resistance; W C
X
X
A h
R
C
C
/ 747 . 0
) 10 3 (
) 4 )( 10 28 . 5 ( 1
2 2
4
= = =

t
Total Thermal Resistance;
= + = W C R
th
/ 105 . 8 747 . 0 ) 679 . 3 )( 2 (

Heat Transfer
Example 4contd
i.e. 6 % of the total resistance.
Temperature Drop across the contact is found by taking the ratio of the Contact
Resistance to the Total Resistance.
C T
R
R
T
th
C
C
= = A = A
0544 . 6 ) 100 (
338 . 12
) 747 . 0 (
ANS
Overall Heat Flow is; W
R
T
q
th
338 . 12
105 . 8
100
= =
A
=
ANS

Heat Transfer
Radiation Heat Transfer
Thermal Radiation is the electromagnetic radiation as result of its temperature.
There are many types of electromagnetic radiations, Thermal Radiation is one of them.
Regardless of the type, electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the speed of light,
3 X 10
8
m/sec. This speed is the product of wavelength and frequency of the radiation.

c =
c = Speed of light
= Wavelength
= Frequency
NOTE : Unit of may be cm, A or m.
Physical Interpretation :

Heat Transfer
Thermal Radiation 0.1 100 m.
Visible Light Portion 0.35 0.75 m.
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12
log , m
1 m 1 A
Thermal
Radiation
Radio
Waves
Infrared Ultraviolet
X-Rays
-Rays
Visible

Heat Transfer
Propagation of Thermal radiation takes place in the form of discrete quanta.
h is Plancks Constant, given by;
h = 6.625 X 10
-34
J.sec
A very basic physical picture of the Radiation propagation
Considering each quantum as a particle having Energy, Mass and momentum.
Each quantum having energy;
E =h
E = mc
2
= h
c
2
m = h
& Momentum = c (h) = h
c
2
c

Heat Transfer
Stefan Boltzmann Law
Applying the principles of Quantum-Statistical Thermodynamics;
When Energy Density is integrated over all wavelengths;
Total Energy emitted is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature.
E
b
= T
4

Where, k is Boltzmanns Constant; 1.38066 X 10
-23
J/molecule.K
Energy Density per unit volume per unit wavelength;
1
8
/
5
=

kT hc
e
hc
u

t
Equation is known as Stefan Boltzmann Law.
E
b
= Energy radiated per unit time per unit area by the ideal radiator, W/m
2

= Stefan Boltzmann Constant; 5.667 X 10
-8
W/m
2
.K
4

Heat Transfer
Stefan Boltzmann Law
Subscript b in this equation Radiation from a Blackbody.
Materials which obey this Law appear black to the eye, as they do not reflect any
radiation.
Thus, a Blackbody is a body which absorbs all the radiations incident upon it.
E
b
is known as the Emissive Power of the Blackbody.
i.e. Energy radiated per unit time per unit area.
NOTE : Blackness of a surface to Thermal Radiation can be quite deceiving.
e.g. Lamp-black..and Ice.!!!
E
b
= T
4
q
emitted
= .A.T
4

Heat Transfer
Radiation Properties
Radiant Energy incident on a surface;
(a) Part is Reflected,
(b) Part is Absorbed,
(c) Part is Transmitted.
Incident
Radiation
Reflection
Transmission
Absorption
Reflectivity = =
Reflected Energy
Incident Energy
Absorptivity = =
Absorbed Energy
Incident Energy
Absorptivity = =
Absorbed Energy
Incident Energy
Incident Energy
Transmissivity = =
Transmitted Energy
Incident Energy
Transmissivity = =
Transmitted Energy
+ + = 1
NOTE : Most solids do not transmit Thermal Radiations. + = 1

Heat Transfer
Types of Reflection :
1. Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection Specular Reflection
2. Incident beam distributed uniformly in all directions Diffuse Reflection
Source
Diffuse Reflection
2
Source
Specular Reflection
Offers the Mirror Image to the Observer

Heat Transfer
No REAL surface cab be perfectly Specular or Diffuse.
Ordinary mirror Specular for visible region; but may not be in complete spectrum
of Thermal Radiation.
Rough surface exhibits the Diffused behaviour.
Polished surface exhibits the Specular behaviour.

Heat Transfer
Kirchhoffs Law
Sample
EA
q
i
A
Black Enclosure
Assume perfect Black enclosure.
Radiant flux incident is q
i
W/m
2
.
A Sample body placed inside Enclosure, in
Thermal Equilibrium with it.
Energy Absorbed by the Sample = Energy emitted.
i.e. E A = q
i
A (I)
Replacing the Sample Body with a Blackbody;
E
b
A = q
i
A (1) (II)
Dividing (I) by (II);
E / E
b
=

Heat Transfer
Ratio of Emissive Power of a body
to that of a Perfectly Black body, at
the same temperature is known as
Emissivity, of the body.
Kirchhoffs Law
Sample
EA
q
i
A
Black Enclosure
= E / E
b

Thus;
=
This is known as Kirchhoffs Identity.

Heat Transfer
Gray Body
Gray Body can be defined as the body whose Monochromatic Emissivity,
is
independent of wavelength.
Monochromatic Emissivity is defined as the ratio of Monochromatic Emissive
Power of the body to that of a Blackbody at the SAME wavelength and
temperature.
= E
/ E
b

Total Emissivity of the body is related to the Monochromatic Emissivity as;
}
=
0
c

d E E
b
And
4
0
T d E E
b b
o
= =
}
Thus,
4
0
T
d E
E
E
b
B
o
c
c

}
= =

Heat Transfer
Gray Body
When the GRAY BODY condition is applied,
=
A functional relation for E
b
was derived by Planck by introducing the concept of
QUANTUM in Electromagnetic Theory.
The derivation is by Statistical Thermodynamics.
By this theory, E
b
is related to the Energy Density by;
4
c u
E
b

=
1
/
5
1
2
=

T C
b
e
C
E

Where, = Wavelength, m
T = Temperature, K
C
1
= 3.743 X 10
8
,W.m/m
2

C
2
= 1.4387 X 10
4
, m.K

Heat Transfer
Wiens Displacement Law
A plot of E
b
as a function of T and .
Peak of the curve is shifted to
SHORTER Wavelengths at
HIGHER Temperatures.
Points of the curve are related by;
max
T = 2897.6 m.K
This is known as Wiens
Displacement Law.

Heat Transfer
Wiens Displacement Law
Shift in the maximum point of the Radiation Curve helps to explain the change in colour
of a body as it is heated.
Band of wavelengths visible to the eye lies between 0.3 0.7 m.
Very small portion of the radiant energy spectrum at low temperatures is visible to eye.
As the body is heated, maximum intensity shifts to shorter wavelengths.
Accordingly, first visible sight of increase in temperature of a body is DARK RED
colour.
Further heating yields BRIGHT RED colour.
Then BRIGHT YELLOW.
And, finally WHITE!!
Material also looks brighter at higher temperatures, as large portion of the total
radiation falls within the visible range.

Heat Transfer
General interest in amount of Energy radiated from a Blackbody in a certain
specified Wavelength range.
The fraction of Total Energy Radiated between 0 to is given by;
}
}
=
0
0
0
0
d E
d E
E
E
b
b
b
b
Diving both sides by T
5
;
( ) ( ) 1
/
5
1
5
2
=
T C
b
e T
C
T
E
This ratio is standardized in Graph as well as Tabular forms; with parameters as;
1. T
2. E
b
/ T
5

3. E
b 0-T
/ T
4

Heat Transfer
If the Radiant Energy between Wavelengths
1
and
2
are desired;
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

0
0
0
0
0
1 2
2 1
b
b
b
b
b b
E
E
E
E
E E

NOTE : E
b 0-
is the Total Radiation emitted over all Wavelengths = T
4

Heat Transfer
EXAMPLE :
Solar Radiation has a spectrum, approx. to that of a Blackbody at 5800 K.
Ordinary window glass transmits Radiation to about 2.5 m.
From the Table for Radiation Function, T = (2.5)(5800) = 14,500 m.K
The fraction of then Solar Spectrum is about 0.97.
Thus, the regular glass transmits most of the Radiation incident upon it.
On the other hand, the room Radiation at 300 K has T = (2.5)(300) = 750 m.K
Radiation Fraction corresponding to this value is 0.001 per cent.

Thus, the ordinary glass essentially TRANSPARENT to Visible light, is almost OPAQUE
for Thermal Radiation at room temperature.

Heat Transfer
Heat Exchangers
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient :
T
A

T
B

T
1

T
2

q
Fluid A
Fluid B
h
1

h
2

R
A
R
B
R
C

q
T
A
T
B

A h
1
1
kA
x A
A h
2
1
T
1
T
2

) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 2 1 1 1 B A
T T A h T T
x
kA
T T A h q =
A
= =
Heat Transfer is expressed as;
Applying the Thermal Resistance;
) / 1 ( ) / ( ) / 1 (
) (
2 1
A h kA x A h
T T
q
B A
+ A +

=
Overall Heat Transfer by combined
Conduction +Convection is expressed in
terms of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ,
U, defined as;
q = U A T
overall

) / 1 ( ) / ( ) / 1 (
1
2 1
h k x h
U
+ A +
=

Heat Transfer
Heat Exchangers
Fluid A
in

Fluid B
in

R
A
R
B
R
C

q
T
A
T
B

i i
A h
1
kL
r r
i o
t 2
) / ( ln
o o
A h
1
T
i
T
o

Hollow Cylinder exposed to
Convective environment on its inner
and outer surfaces.
Area for Convection is NOT same for
both fluids.
I D and thickness of the inner tube.
Overall Heat Transfer would be;
o o
i
i i
B A
A h L k
r r
A h
T T
q
1
2
) / ( ln 1
) (
0
+ +

=
t

Heat Transfer
Heat Exchangers
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient can be based on either INNER side or OUTER area
of the tube.
Based in INNER Area;
o o
i i i
i
i
h A
A
L k
r r A
h
U
1
2
) / ( ln 1
1
0
+ +
=
t
Based in OUTER Area;
o
i o
i i
o
o
h L k
r r A
h A
A
U
1
2
) / ( ln 1
1
0
+ +
=
t
In general, for either Plane Wall or Cylinder,
=
th
R
UA
1

Heat Transfer
Example 5
Water flows at 50 C inside a 2.5 cm inside diameter tube such that h
i
= 3500 W/m
2
.C.
The tube has a wall thickness of 0.8 mm with thermal conductivity of 16 W/m.C. The
outside of the tube loses heat by free convection with ho = 7.6 W/m
2
.C.Calculate the
overall heat transfer coefficient and heat air at 20 C.
3 Resistances in series.
L = 1.0 mtr, d
i
= 0.025 mtr and d
o
= 0.025 + (2)(0.008) mtr = 0.0266 mtr.
W C
A h
R
i i
i
/ 00364 . 0
) 0 . 1 )( 025 . 0 ( ) 3500 (
1 1
= = =
t
W C
L k
d d
R
i o
t
/ 00062 . 0
) 0 . 1 )( 16 ( 2
) 025 . 0 / 0266 . 0 ( ln
2
) / ( ln
= = =
t t
W C
A h
R
o o
o
/ 575 . 1
) 0 . 1 )( 0266 . 0 ( ) 6 . 7 (
1 1
= = =
t

Heat Transfer
This clearly states that the controlling resistance for the Overall Heat Transfer
Coefficient is Outside Convection Resistance.
Hence, the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient is based on Outside Tube Area.
Example 5.contd
T A U
R
T
q
o
th
overall
A =
A
=
0
| |( )
C m W
R A
U
th
=
+ +
= =
. / 577 . 7
575 . 1 00062 . 0 00364 . 0 ) 0 . 1 )( 0266 . 0 (
1 1
2
0
0
t
.ANS
Heat Transfer is obtained by;
W T A U q
o o
19 ) 20 50 )( 0 . 1 )( 0266 . 0 ( ) 577 . 7 ( = = A = t
.ANS

Heat Transfer
Heat Exchangers
Fouling Factor :
After a period, the performance of the Heat Exchanger gets degraded as;
1. HT surface may become coated with various deposits.
2. HT surface may get corroded due to interaction between fluid and material.
This coating offers additional Resistance to the Heat Flow.
Performance Degradation effect is presented by introducing Fouling Factor or
Fouling Resistance, R
f.

Fouling Factor, R
f
is defined as;
clean dirty
f
U U
R
1 1
=

Heat Transfer
Types of Heat Exchangers
Shell-And-Tube Heat Exchanger :

Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer
Miniature / Compact Heat Exchanger :

Heat Transfer
Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger :

Heat Transfer
Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger :

Heat Transfer
Log Mean Temperature Difference
1 2
A
T
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
T
h1

T
c1

T
h2

T
c2

dq
T
h

T
c

dA
1 2
A
T
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
T
h1

T
c1

T
h2

T
c2

dq
T
h

T
c

dA
TEMPERATURE PROFILES :
Parallel Flow Counter Flow

Heat Transfer
1 2
A
T
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
T
h1

T
c1

T
h2

T
c2

dq
T
h

T
c

dA
dq = U dA (T
h
-T
c
)
q = U A T
m

U = Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.
A = Surface Area for Heat Transfer
consistent with definition of U.
T
m
= Suitable Mean Temperature
Difference across Heat Exchanger.
As can be seen, the Temperature
Difference between the Hot and Cold
fluids vary between Inlet and Outlet.
Average Heat Transfer Area for the
above equation is required.

Heat Transfer
1 2
A
T
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
T
h1

T
c1

T
h2

T
c2

dq
T
h

T
c

dA
dq = U dA (T
h
-T
c
)
Heat transferred through elemental area dA;
c c
c
h h
h
dT C m dT C m dq
- -
= =
) (
c h
T T dA U dq =
h
h
h
C m
dq
dT
-
= And;
c
c
c
C m
dq
dT
-
=
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
- -
c
c
h
h
c h c h
C m C m
dq T T d dT dT
1 1
) (
Solving for dq;
dA
C m C m
U
T T
T T d
c
c
h
h
c h
c h
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
- -
1 1 ) (

Heat Transfer
1 2
A
T
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
T
h1

T
c1

T
h2

T
c2

dq
T
h

T
c

dA
dq = U dA (T
h
-T
c
)
Equation can be integrated between
conditions 1 and 2 to yield;
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
- -
c
c
h
h
c h
c h
C m C m
A U
T T
T T 1 1
) (
) (
ln
1 1
2 2
Again;
) (
2 1 h h
h
h
T T
q
C m
=
-
) (
1 2 c c
c
c
T T
q
C m
=
-
&
This substitution gives;
| | ) /( ) ( ln
) ( ) (
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
c h c h
c h c h
T T T T
T T T T
A U q

=
| | ) /( ) ( ln
) ( ) (
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
c h c h
c h c h
m
T T T T
T T T T
T

= A
OR;

Heat Transfer
This Temperature Difference, T
m
, is known as Log Mean Temperature Difference.
( ) Ts both of Ratio natural
T T
LMTD
HE of end other HE of end one
A
A A
=
log
Main Assumption :
1. Specific Heats (C
c
and C
h
) of fluids do not vary with Temperatures.
2. Convective HT Coefficients (h) are constant throughout the Heat Exchanger.
Serious concerns for validity due to : 1. Entrance Effects.
2. Fluid Viscosity.
3. Change in Th. Conductivity.

Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer
Example 6
Water at the rate of 68 kg/min is heated from 35 to 75 C by an oil having specific
heat of 1.9 kJ/kg.C. The fluids are used in a counterflow double-pipe heat exchanger,
and the oil enters in the exchanger at 110 C and leaves at 75 C. The overall heat
transfer coefficient is 320 W/m
2
.C. Calculate the heat exchanger area.
Total Heat Transfer is calculated by Energy absorbed by water;
kW MJ T C m q
w w
w
5 . 189 min / 37 . 11 ) 35 75 )( 18 . 4 )( 68 ( = = = A =
-
2
Since all fluid temperatures are known, LMTD
can be calculated.
| |
| |
C
T T T T
T T T T
T
c h c h
c h c h
m
=

=

= A
44 . 37
) 75 110 /( ) 35 75 ( ln
) 75 110 ( ) 35 75 (
) /( ) ( ln
) ( ) (
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
1
A
T
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
110 C
75 C 75 C
35 C
dq
T
h

T
c

dA
And;
m
T A U q A =
Yields;
2
3
82 . 15
) 44 . 37 )( 320 (
10 5 . 189
m
X
T U
q
A
m
= =
A
=
.ANS

Heat Transfer
Example 7
In stead of double-pipe heat exchanger, of Example 6, it is desired to use a shell-and-
tube heat exchanger with water making one shell pass and oil making two tube
passes. Calculate the heat exchanger area assuming other conditions same.
T
1
= 35 C T
2
= 75 C t
1
= 110 C t
2
= 75 C
467 . 0
110 35
110 75
1 1
1 2
=
=
t T
t t
P
143 . 1
110 75
75 35
1 2
2 1
=
=
t t
T T
R
m
T F A U q A =
yields;
2
3
53 . 19
) 44 . 37 )( 8 . 0 )( 320 (
10 5 . 189
m
X
T F U
q
A
m
= =
A
=
.ANS
Correction Factor from Chart = 0.8

Heat Transfer
Effectiveness-NTU Method
LMTD approach is suitable when both the inlet and outlet temperatures are known,
or can be easily computed.
However, when the temperatures are to be evaluated by an iterative method, analysis
becomes quite complicated as it involves the Logarithmic function.
In this case, the method of analysis is based on the Effectiveness of the Heat
Exchanger in transferring the given amount of Heat.
Effectiveness of the Heat Exchanger is defined as;
Transfer Heat Possible Maximum
Transfer Heat Actual
ess Effectiven = = c
Actual Heat Transfer is calculated by;
1. Energy lost by HOT fluid. OR
2. Energy gained by COLD fluid.

Heat Transfer
For Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger;
) ( ) (
1 2 2 1 c c c
c
h h h
h
T T Cp m T T Cp m q = =
- -
For Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger;
) ( ) (
2 1 2 1 c c c
c
h h h
h
T T Cp m T T Cp m q = =
- -
Maximum possible Heat Transfer Maximum possible Temperature Difference
Difference in INLET Temperatures
of Hot and Cold fluids.
Maximum Temperature Difference Minimum value. ) ( C m
-
Thus;
Maximum Heat Transfer is given by;
) ( ) (
min max
inlet inlet
c h
T T Cp m q =
-
The fluid may be Hot or Cold, depending on their respective mass flow rates
and Specific Heats.
) ( Cp m
-

Heat Transfer
1 1
2 1
1 1
2 1
) (
) (
c h
h h
c h h
h
h h h
h
h
T T
T T
T T Cp m
T T Cp m
=
-
-
c
1 1
1 2
1 1
1 2
) (
) (
c h
c c
c h c
c
c c c
c
c
T T
T T
T T Cp m
T T Cp m
=
-
-
c
For Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger;
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
) (
) (
c h
h h
c h h
h
h h h
h
h
T T
T T
T T Cp m
T T Cp m
=
-
-
c
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
) (
) (
c h
c c
c h c
c
c c c
c
c
T T
T T
T T Cp m
T T Cp m
=
-
-
c

Heat Transfer
Effectiveness, , can be derived in a different way;
1 2
A
T
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
T
h1

T
c1

T
h2

T
c2

dq
T
h

T
c

dA
dq = U dA (T
h
-T
c
)
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
-
-
-
- -
h
h
c
c
c
c
c
c
h
h
c h
c h
Cp m
Cp m
Cp m
A U
Cp m Cp m
A U
T T
T T
1
1 1
) (
) (
ln
1 1
2 2
(
(
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
-
-
-
h
h
c
c
c
c
c h
c h
Cp m
Cp m
Cp m
A U
T T
T T
1 exp
) (
) (
1 1
2 2 OR
If Cold fluid is min fluid; ) ( Cp m
-
1 1
1 2
c h
c c
c
T T
T T
= c

Heat Transfer
c c
c
h h
h
dT Cp m dT Cp m dq
- -
= =
We know;
) ( ) (
1 2 2 1 c c c
c
h h h
h
T T Cp m T T Cp m =
- -
) (
2 1 1 2 c c
h
h
c
c
h h
T T
Cp m
Cp m
T T + =
-
-
This yields;
) (
) )( / (
) (
) (
1 1
2 2 1 1
1 1
2 2
c h
c c c h
h
c
c
h
c h
c h
T T
T T T Cp m Cp m T
T T
T T
+
=
- -
c
h
h
c
c
c h
c c c c h
h
c
c
c h
Cp m
Cp m
T T
T T T T Cp m Cp m T T
c
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ +
-
- - -
1 1
) (
) ( ) )( / ( ) (
1 1
2 1 2 1 1 1
) / ( 1
) / ( 1 / exp 1
h
h
c
c
h
h
c
c
c
c
c
Cp m Cp m
Cp m Cp m Cp m UA
- -
- - -
+
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

= c

Heat Transfer
It can be shown that the SAME expression results if Hot fluid is min fluid;
EXCEPT that and are interchanged.
) ( Cp m
-
) (
c c
Cp m
-
) (
h h
Cp m
-
In a General Form;
( )( ) | |
max min
max min min
/ 1
/ 1 / exp 1
C C
C C C UA
parallel
+
+
= c
where, C = ; defined as CAPACITY RATE. ) ( C m
-
Similar analysis for Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger yields;
( )( ) | |
( )( ) | |
max min min max min
max min min
/ 1 / exp ) / ( 1
/ 1 / exp 1
C C C UA C C
C C C UA
counter

= c
The group of terms, (UA/C
min
) is known as Number of Transfer Units (NTU).
This is so, since it is the indication of the size of the Heat Exchanger.

Heat Transfer
Heat Exchanger Effectiveness Relations :
N = NTU = UA/C
min
C = C
min
/C
max

Flow Geometry Relation
Double Pipe :
Parallel Flow
Counter Flow
Counter Flow, C = 1
Cross Flow :
Both Fluids Mixed
Both Fluids Unmixed
C
max
mixed, C
min
Unmixed
C
max
Unmixed, C
min
Mixed
Shell-and-Tube :
1 Shell-pass; 2/4/6 Tube-pass
All Exchangers, C = 0 :
C
C N
+
+
=
1
)] 1 ( exp[ 1
c
)] 1 ( exp[ 1
)] 1 ( exp[ 1
C N C
C N

= c
1 +
=
N
N
c
22 . 0
1 ) exp(
exp 1

=
(

= N n where
Cn
NCn
c
1
1
) exp( 1 ) exp( 1
1

(

+

=
N NC
C
N
c
)]} 1 ( exp[ 1 ){ / 1 (
N
e C C

= c
)]} exp( 1 )[ / 1 ( exp{ 1 NC C = c
1
2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2
] ) 1 ( exp[ 1
] ) 1 ( exp[ 1
) 1 ( 1 2

)
`
+
+ +
+ + + =
C N
C N
X C C c
N
e
=1 c

Heat Transfer
Heat Exchanger NTU Relations :
N = NTU = UA/C
min
C = C
min
/C
max
= Effectiveness
Flow Geometry Relation
Double Pipe :
Parallel Flow
Counter Flow
Counter Flow, C = 1
Cross Flow :
C
max
mixed, C
min
Unmixed
C
max
Unmixed, C
min
Mixed
Shell-and-Tube :
1 Shell-pass; 2/4/6 Tube-pass
All Exchangers, C = 0 :
C
C
N
+
+
=
1
] ) 1 ( 1 ln[ c
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
1
ln
1
1
c
c
C C
N
c
c
=
1
N
(
+ = ) 1 ( ln
1
1 ln c C
C
N
)] 1 ( ln 1 [ ln
1
c +
= C
C
N
(
+ +
+
+ =
2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2
) 1 ( 1 ) / 2 (
) 1 ( 1 ) / 2 (
ln ) 1 (
C C
C C
X C N
c
c
) 1 ( ln c = N

Heat Transfer
Example 8
A cross-flow heat exchanger is used to heat an oil in the tubes (C=1.9 kJ/kg.C) from
15 C to 85 C. Blowing across the outside of the tubes is steam which enters at 130 C
and leaves at 110 C with a mass flow rate of 5.2 kg/sec. The overall heat transfer
coefficient is 275 W/m
2
.C and C for steam is 1.86 kJ/kg.C. Calculate the surface
area of the heat exchanger.
kW T C m q
s s
s
193 ) 110 130 )( 86 . 1 )( 2 . 5 ( = = A =
-
Total Heat Transfer is calculated from Energy Balance of Steam;
1
A
T
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
130 C
85 C 110 C
15 C
dq
T
h

T
c

dA
T
m
is calculated by treating as a
Counter-Flow Heat Transfer;
C T
m
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

= A 9 . 66
) 15 110 (
) 85 130 (
ln
) 15 110 ( ) 85 130 (

Heat Transfer
Example 8.contd
t
1
and t
2
represent unmixed fluid (i.e. Oil) and T
1
and T
2
represent the mixed fluid
(i.e. Steam). Hence;
T
1
=130 C; T
2
=110 C; t
1
=15 C; t
2
=85 C
From LMTD Correction Chart; F =0..97
609 . 0
15 130
15 85
1 1
1 2
=
=
t T
t t
P 286 . 0
15 85
110 130
1 2
2 1
=
=
t t
T T
R
And
Heat Transfer Area is;
2
3
82 . 10
) 9 . 66 )( 97 . 0 )( 275 (
10 193
m
X
T F U
q
A
m
=
=
A
=
.ANS

Heat Transfer
Example 9
Calculate the heat exchanger performance in Example 8; if the oil flow rate is
reduced to half while the steam flow rate is kept constant. Assume U remains same as
275 W/m
2
.C.
Calculating the Oil flow rate;
sec / 45 . 1
) 15 85 )( 9 . 1 (
10 193
3
kg
X
m T C m q
o
o o
o
=
= A =
- -
New Flow rate is half of this value. i.e. 0.725 kg/sec.
We assume the Inlet Temperatures remain same as 130 C for Steam and 15 C for Oil.
Hence, ) 130 ( ) 15 (
, , s e s
s
o e o
o
T C m T C m q = =
- -
But, both the Exit Temperatures T
e,o
and T
e,s
are unknown.
The values of R and P can not be calculated without these temperatures.
Hence, T
m
can not be calculated.
I TERATI VE procedure MUST be used to solve this example.
However, this example can be solved with Effectiveness-NTU Approach.

Heat Transfer
Example 10
Solve Example 9 by Effectiveness-NTU Method.
For Steam;
C kW Cp m C
s
s
s
= = =
-
/ 67 . 9 ) 86 . 1 )( 2 . 5 (
For Oil;
C kW Cp m C
o
o
o
= = =
-
/ 38 . 1 ) 9 . 1 )( 725 . 0 (
Thus, the fluid having minimum is Oil.
) ( Cp m
-
It is observed that unmixed fluid (i.e. Oil) has Cmin and mixed fluid (i.e. Steam) has Cmax.
143 . 0 67 . 9 / 38 . 1 /
max min
= = C C
156 . 2 1380 / ) 82 . 10 )( 275 ( /

min
= = = C A U NTU

Heat Transfer
Example 10.contd
Using the Effectiveness, we can calculate the Temperature Difference for Oil as;
C T T
o
= = A = A 5 . 95 ) 15 130 )( 831 . 0 ( ) (
max
c
Hence; from the Table; we get;
{ } 831 . 0 )] 1 )( 143 . 0 ( exp[ 1 ) 143 / 0 / 1 (
)]} 1 ( exp[ 1 ){ / 1 (
156 . 2
= =
=
e
e C C
N
c
Thus, the Heat Transfer is;
kW T Cp m q
o o
o
132 ) 5 . 95 )( 38 . 1 ( = = A =
-
Thus,
Reduction in Oil flow rate by 50 % results in reduction in Heat Transfer by 32 % only.

Heat Transfer
Example 11
Hot oil at 100 C is used to heat air in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger the oil makes
6 tube passes and the air makes one shell-pass. 2 kg/sec of air are to be heated from
20 C to 80 C. The specific heat of the oil is 2100 kJ/kg.C, and its flow rate is
3.0 kg/sec. Calculate the area required for the heat exchanger for U = 200 W/m
2
.C.
Energy Balance is;
C T
T
T Cp m T Cp m q
e
o e
a a
a
o
o
=
=
A = A =
- -
27 . 80
) 20 80 )( 1009 )( 0 . 2 ( ) 100 )( 2100 )( 0 . 3 (
0 ,
,
0
We have;
C W Cp m C C
C W Cp m C C
a
a
c
o
o
h
= = = =
= = = =
-
-
/ 2018 ) 1009 )( 0 . 2 (
/ 6300 ) 2100 )( 0 . 3 (
min
max
And;
3203 . 0
6300
2018
max
= = =
C
C
C
main

Heat Transfer
Example 11.contd
Effectiveness is;
75 . 0
) 20 100 (
) 20 80 (
max
=
=
A
A
=
T
T
c
c
99 . 1
) 3203 . 0 1 ( 3203 . 0 1 ) 75 . 0 / 2 (
) 3203 . 0 1 ( 3203 . 0 1 ) 75 . 0 / 2 (
ln ) 3203 . 0 1 (
) 1 ( 1 ) / 2 (
) 1 ( 1 ) / 2 (
ln ) 1 (
2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2
=
(
+ +
+
+ =
(
+ +
+
+ =
X
C C
C C
X C N
c
c
From the NTU Table;
Thus;
2
min
min
146 . 22
) 200 (
) 2018 (
) 1949 . 2 ( m
U
C
NTU A
C
A U
NTU
= = =
=
.ANS

Heat Transfer
Convection Heat Transfer
u
u

T
w

q
Consider a heated plate shown in Fig.
Temperature of the plate is T
w
and that of
surrounding is T

Velocity profile is as shown in Fig.
Velocity reduces to Zero at the plate surface as
a result of Viscous Action.
Since no velocity at the plate surface, Heat is transferred by Conduction only.
Then , WHY Convection ?
ANS : Temperature Gradient depends on the rate at which fluid carries away the Heat.
h is known as the CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT. (W/m
2
.K)

Overall Effect of Convection is given by Newtons Law of Cooling.
q =h A T =h A (T
w
- T
)

Heat Transfer
Convection Heat Transfer
u
u

T
w

q
Convective Heat Transfer has dependence
on Viscosity as well as Thermal properties of
the fluid.
1) Thermal Conductivity, k
2) Specific Heat, Cp
3) Density,
Heated plate exposed to room air; without any external source of motion of fluid, the
movement of air will be due to the Density Gradient.
This is called Natural or Free Convection.
Heated plate exposed to air blown by a fan; i.e. with an external source of motion of fluid.
This is called Forced Convection.

Heat Transfer
Convection Energy Balance on Flow Channel
T
e
T
i

q
-
m
The same analogy can be used for evaluating the
Heat Loss / Gain resulting from a fluid flowing
inside a channel or tube, as shown in Fig.
Heated wall at temperature T
w
loses heat to the
cooler fluid through the channel (i.e. pipe).
Temperature rise from inlet (T
i
) to exit (T
e
).
) ( ) (
, , avg fluid avg w i e
T T A h T T Cp m q = =
-
T
e
, T
i
and T
fluid
are known as Bulk or Energy Average
Temperatures.

Heat Transfer
Convection Boundary Condition
We know that;
) (

= T T A h q
w conv
With Electrical Analogy, as in case of Conduction;
A h
T T
q
w
conv
1
) (

=
The term is known as Convective Resistance;
A h
1

Heat Transfer
Conduction Convection System
Heat conducted through a body, frequently needs to be removed by Convection process.
e.g. Furnace walls, Motorcycle Engine, etc.
Finned Tube arrangement is the most common for such Heat Exchange applications.
Consider a One Dimensional fin.
Surrounding fluid at T
.
Base of fin at T
0
.

Energy Balance of element of fin with thickness dx ;
Energy in left face = Energy out right face +
Energy lost by Convection
Base
dx
L
q
x
Q
x+x

A
t
dq
conv
=h P dx (T-T
)

Heat Transfer
Convection Heat Transfer;
) (

= T T A h q
w conv
Where, Area of fin is surface area for Convection.
Let the C/s. area be A and perimeter be P.
Energy in left face;
x
dT
q k A
dx
=
Energy out right face;
2
2
x dx
x dx
dT dT d T
q k A k A dx
dx dx dx
+
+
| |
(
= = +
|
(
\ .
Energy lost by Convection;
( )
conv
q h Pdx T T
=
NOTE : Differential area of the fin is the product of Perimeter and the differential
length dx.

Heat Transfer
Combining the terms; we get; ( )
2
2
0
d T hP
T T
dx kA

=
Let, =(T - T
)
2
2
0
d hP
dx kA
u
u =
Let m
2
=hP/kA
Thus, the general solution of the equation becomes;
1 2
mx mx
C e C e u

= +
One boundary condition is;
=
0
=(T - T
) at x =0.

Heat Transfer
Other boundary conditions are;
CASE 1 : Fin is very long.
Temperature at the fin end is that of surrounding.
CASE 2 : Fin has finite length.
Temperature loss due to Convection.
CASE 3 : Fin end is insulated.
dT/dx =0 at x =L.
For CASE 1, Boundary Conditions are : =
0
=(T - T
) at x =0.
=0

at x = .
And, the solution becomes;
0 0
mx
T T
e
T T
u
u

= =

Heat Transfer
For CASE 3, Boundary Conditions are : =
0
=(T - T
) at x =0.
d/dx =0

at x =L.
This yields;
0 1 2
1 2
0 ( )
mL mL
C C
m C e C e
u
= +
= +
Solving for C
1
and C
2
, we get;
2 2
0
cosh[ ( )]
1 1 cosh( )
mx mx
mL mL
e e m L x
e e mL
u
u

= + =
+ +
where, the hyperbolic functions are defined as;
sinh
2
x x
e e
x

= cosh
2
x x
e e
x

+
= tanh
x x
x x
e e
x
e e
=
+

Heat Transfer
Solution for CASE 2 is;
0
cosh[ ( )] ( / ) sinh[ ( )]
cosh ( ) ( / ) sinh ( )
T T m L x h mk m L x
T T mL h mk mL
+
=
+
All the Heat loss by the fin MUST be conducted to the base of fin at x =0.
Thus, the Heat loss is;
0
x dx
x
dT
q k A
dx
+
=
(
=
(
Alternate method of integrating Convection Heat Loss;

0 0
( )
L L
q hP T T dx hP dx u
= =
} }

Heat Transfer
Application of Conduction equation is easier than that for Convection.
(0)
0 0
[ ]
m
q k A m e hPk A u u
= =
For CASE 1 :
0
2 2
0
1 1
1 1
tanh ( )
mL mL
q k A m
e e
h Pk A mL
u
u
| |
=
|
+ +
\ .
=
For CASE 3 :
0
sinh ( ) ( / ) cosh ( )
cosh ( ) ( / ) sinh ( )
mL h mk mL
q h Pk A
mL h mk mL
u
+
=
+
For CASE 2 :

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
A) Flow over a Flat Plate :
At the leading edge of the plate, a region develops, where the influence of Viscous Forces
is felt.
These viscous forces are described in terms of Shear Stress, , between the fluid layers.
Laminar
Sublayer
u

u
u

u
Laminar Transition Turbulent
x
y
dy
du
t =

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
Region of flow, developed from the leading edge, in which the effects of Viscosity are
observed, is known as Boundary Layer.
Shear Stress is proportional to normal velocity gradient.
dy
du
t =
The constant of proportionality, , is known as dynamic viscosity. (N-sec/m
2
)
The point for end of Boundary Layer is chosen as the y co-ordinate where the velocity
becomes 99 % of the free stream value.
Initial development of Boundary Layer is Laminar.
After some critical distance from leading edge, small disturbances in flow get amplified.
This transition is continued till the flow becomes Turbulent.

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
Development of Flow Regimes

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
v
x u x u

= = Re
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent takes place when;
5
10 5 X
x u x u
> =

v
where,
u

= Free Stream Velocity (m/sec)
x = Distance from leading edge (m)
= / =Kinematic Viscosity (m
2
/sec)
This particular group of terms is known as Reynolds Number;
and denoted by (Re).
It is a dimensionless quantity.

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
Range for Reynlolds No. (Re) transition from Laminar to Turbulent lies between
2 X 10
5
to 10
6
; depending on;
1. Surface Roughness. 2. Turbulence Level.
NOTE : Generally, Transition ends at twice the Re where it starts.
Reynolds Number (Re) =
Ratio of Momentum Forces ( u
2
) to Shear Stress ( u
/ x ) .

Heat Transfer
Laminar profile is approximately Parabolic.
Turbulent profile has a initial part, close to plate, is very nearly Linear.
This is due to the Laminar Sublayer that adheres to the surface.
Portion outside this Sublayer is relatively Flat.
Laminar
Sublayer
u

u
u

u
x
y
dy
du
t =
Viscous Flow

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
Physical mechanism of Viscosity Momentum Transfer
Laminar flow Molecules move from one lamina to another,
carrying Momentum Velocity
Net Momentum Transfer from High Velocity region to Low Velocity Region.
Force in direction of flow, i.e. Viscous shear Stress,
Turbulent flow has no distinct fluid layers.
Macroscopic chunks of fluid, transporting Energy and Momentum,
in stead of microscopic molecular motion.
Larger Viscous shear Stress,
Rate of Momentum Transfer Rate of movement of molecules
T

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
B) Flow through a Pipe :
Starting Length
Boundary Layer
Uniform
Inlet
Flow
Fully Developed Flow
Laminar
Sublayer
Turbulent Core
(A) Laminar Flow
(B) Turbulent flow
(A) Laminar Flow
(B) Turbulent flow

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
Boundary Layer develops at the entrance of the pipe.
Eventually, the Boundary Layer fills entire tube. The flow is said to be fully developed.
For Laminar flow, Parabolic velocity profile is developed.
For Turbulent flow, a somewhat blunter profile is observed.
Velocity profiles can be mathematically expressed as :
For Laminar flow : |
.
|
\
|
=
r
y
r
y
u
u
m
2
For Turbulent flow :
7
1
|
.
|
\
|
=
r
y
u
u
m

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
Reynolds Number is used as criterion to check for Laminar or Turbulent flow.
Range of Reynolds Number for Transition :
2300 Re > =
d u
m
d
4000 Re 2000 < <
d

Heat Transfer
Viscous Flow
Mean Velocity, G can be defined as;
m
u
A
m
G = =
-
Reynolds Number, Re can also be written as;
d G
d
= Re
where, m = Mass Flow Rate (kg / sec);
u
m

= Mean Velocity (m / sec);
A = Cross-Sectional Area (m
2
).
Continuity Equation for One-dimensional flow in a tube ;
A u m
m
=
-

Heat Transfer
Inviscid Flow
No Real fluid is inviscid.
Practically, we can assume the flow to be inviscid for certain conditions.
Flow at a sufficiently large distance from the flat plate, can be assumed to be inviscid.
Velocity Gradients, normal to the direction of flow are very small.
Viscous Shear Forces are also very small.
Balance of Forces on an element of I ncompressible fluid
= Change in Momentum of fluid element; yields Bernoullis Equation as;
where, = Fluid Density, (kg/m
3
)
P = Pressure at particular point in flow, (Pa)
V = Velocity of flow at that point, (m/sec)
.
2
1
2
Const
g
V P
= +

Heat Transfer
Inviscid Flow
Bernoullis Equation is considered as Energy Equation due to ;
1. The term ( V
2
/ 2g ) Kinetic Energy.
2. The term ( P / ) Potential Energy.
For a Compressible fluid, Energy Equation should take into account :
1. Changes in Internal Energy, h
2. Corresponding changes in Temperatures, T.

Heat Transfer
Inviscid Flow
where, u = Internal Energy, (Joule)
Q = Heat added to Control Volume, (Joule)
W = Net Work done in the Process, (Joule)
v = Specific Volume of fluid, (m
3
/kg)
h is the Enthalpy of the state and is defined as;
Pv u h + =
One Dimensional Steady Flow Energy Equation :
W
g
V
h Q
g
V
h + + = + +
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1

Heat Transfer
Compressible Fluid Flow
Gas Constant for a gas is given as;
R =R / M
where, M = Molecular Weight of the gas.
R = Universal Gas Constant = 8314.5 J/kg.mol.K
For Air, the Ideal Gas Properties are :
C
v
,
air
=0.718 kJ/kg.K R
air
= 287 J/kg.K
C
p
,
air
=1.005 kJ/kg.K
air
=C
p
/ C
v
= 1.4
h =C
p
T u =C
v
T
Equations of State of the fluid ;
P = R T

Heat Transfer
Thermal Boundary Layer
On similar lines of Velocity Boundary Layers, there exist Thermal Boundary Layers also.
Flow regions where the fluid temperature changes from the free stream value to the
value at the surface.
T

T
T

T
Thermal Boundary Layer thickness
T
= Distance from surface in y direction
where, ( T T
w
) / ( T

- T
w
) = 0.99 or 99 %

Heat Transfer
Laminar Boundary Layer on Flat Plate
Exact Solution of Laminar
Flow Convection over a flat
plate needs differential
equations of Momentum and
Energy of the flow to obtain
the Temperature Gradient in
the fluid at the wall, and
hence, Convection Coefficient.
Assumptions :

1. Steady State conditions,
2. Unit Depth,
3. Fluid Densiy,
x
u
Pdy
x
x
u
u dx
x
c
+
c
P
P dx dy
x
c
| |
+
|
c
\ .
y
u
y
y
u
u dy
y
c
+
c
x
u
dx
y
| | c
|
c
\ .
2
2
x x
u u
dx dx dy
y y

| | | | c c
+
| |
c c
\ . \ .

Heat Transfer
Similarly, net flow in the element in y direction; dx dy
y
u
y
c
c

Total net flow in x direction must be Zero.
0 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
dy dx
y
u
x
u
y x
, dx and dy can not be Zero. Hence; 0 =

c
c
+
c
c
y
u
x
u
y x
Thus, net flow in the element in x direction; dy dx
x
u
x
c
c

dy u
x
dy dx
x
u
u
x
x
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
and Mass Flow Rate in and out in x direction;

Heat Transfer
Equation of Momentum can be derived from :

1. Newtons Second Law of Motion. 2. Viscous Shear Stress in y - direction is negligible.
3. Newtonian fluid. 4. Absence of Pressure-Gradient in y direction.
Flow across horizontal faces also contribute to the Momentum Balance in x direction;
For bottom face, Momentum Flow entering is;
y x
y x
u u
u dy u dx dx
y x
c c
| || |
+ +
| |
c c
\ .\ .
For bottom face, Momentum Flow entering is;
.
x y
u u dx
Rates of Momentum Flow in x direction for left and right hand vertical faces are;
and dx dy u
x
2
dx dy dx
x
u
u
x
x
2
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+

Heat Transfer
Viscous Shear Force on bottom face is;
x
u
dx
y
c
| |
|
c
\ .
Viscous Shear Force on top face is;
x x
u u
dy dx
y y y
| c c |
| |
c
+
|
|
|
c c c
\ .
\ .
Net Viscous Shear Force in x - direction is;

2
2
x
u
dy dx
y
| | c
|
c
\ .

Heat Transfer
Pressure Forces on left and right hand faces are;
Pdy
P
P dx dy
x
c
(
+
(
c

and
Net Pressure Force in x - direction is;

.
P
dx dy
x
c
c
Sum of the Net Forces = Momentum Flow out of the Control Volume in x - direction
Thus, in x direction; and neglecting second order differentials;
2
2
x x
x
x y
u u
u P
u u
x y y x

c c
| | c c
+ =
|
c c c c
\ .

Heat Transfer
On the similar lines to that with Momentum Equation; the Energy Equation can also be
derived as;
Energy Balance =
Rate of Net Conduction in
+ Rate of Net Convection in
= 0
p x
C u t dy
x
p x
u t
C u dx t dx dy
x x
c c
| || |
+ +
| |
c c
\ . \ .
t
k dy
x
c
c
2
2
t t
k dy dx
x x
| | c c
+
|
c c
\ .
p y
C u t dx
y
p y
u
t
C u dy t dy dx
y y
c
| || | c
+ +
| |
c c
\ . \ .
t
k dx
y
c
c
2
2
t t
k dx dy
y y
| | c c
+
|
c c
\ .

Heat Transfer
i.e.
2 2
2 2
0
x x
x
y y
y
t t
k dx dy
x y
u u t t
Cp u t dx dy
x x x x
u u
t t
Cp u t dx dy
y y y y
| | c c
+
|
c c
\ .
c c ( c c
| |
+ +
| (
c c c c
\ .

c c (
| | c c
+ + =
( |
c c c c
\ .

OR
2 2
2 2
x y
t t t t
u u
x y x y
o
| | c c c c
+ = +
|
c c c c
\ .

Heat Transfer
Conduction in x direction is very small and can be neglected.
2
2
t
x
c
c
2 2
2 2
x y
t t t t
u u
x y x y
o
| | c c c c
+ = +
|
c c c c
\ .
Similarly, Pressure Gradient in x direction is also small and can be neglected.
P
x
c
c
2
2
x x
x
x y
u u
u P
u u
x y y x

c c
| | c c
+ =
|
c c c c
\ .

Heat Transfer
Similarities between Momentum Equation and energy Equation ;
2
2
x y
t t t
u u
x y y
o
| | c c c
+ =
|
c c c
\ .
Pr /
p
p
C
k Diffusion of Momentum
C k Diffusion of Energy
v

| |
| | | |
= = = =
|
| |
|
\ . \ .
\ .
This dimensionless Number that relates Fluid Boundary Layer and
Thermal Boundary Layer is known as Prandtl No. and denoted by ( Pr ).
2 2
2 2
x x
x x
x y
u u
u u
u u
x y y y
c c
| | | | c c
+ = =
| |
c c c c
\ . \ .
is the Kinematic Viscosity
or Momentum Diffusivity
= /

Heat Transfer
Prandtl No. can vary from 4 X 10
-3
0.2 and 1.0 - 4 X 10
4

Liquid Metals
Viscous Oils
Gases have generally Pr =0.7
u
T
T
Pr < 1
=
T
Pr = 1
T
Pr > 1

Heat Transfer
Integral Momentum and Energy Equations
Consider a Control Volume that extends
from wall to just beyond the limit of
Boundary Layer in y direction.

Thickness dx in x direction.

Unit depth in z direction.
Equation to relate Net Momentum Outflow
to Net Force acting in x direction.
A
B
C
D
y =
y

Heat Transfer
Momentum Flow across face AB :
2
0
x
u dy
o
}
Momentum Flow across face CD :
2 2
0 0
.
x x
d
u dy u dy dx
dx
o o
+
} }
Fluid also enters the control Volume
across face BD with rate of :
0
.
x
d
u dy dx
dx
o
}
= Fluid leaving across face CD
Fluid entering across face AB
Fluid entering across face BD has Velocity u
s
in x direction.
Momentum Flow into Control Volume in x direction :

0
.
s x
d
u u dy dx
dx
o
}

Heat Transfer
Net Momentum Outflow in x direction :
0 0
. .
x s x
d d
u dy dx u u dy dx
dx dx
o o

} }
Pressure Force will act on face AB and CD.
Shear Force will act on face AC.
No Shear Force will act on face BD since it is at limit of Boundary Layer.
0
x
u
y
c
=
c
Net Force acting on Control Volume in x direction :
x x
x x w w
P P
P P dx dx dx dx
x x
o o t o t
c c
| |
+ =
|
c c
\ .

Heat Transfer
Pressure Gradient can be neglected as it is very small, compared to other terms.
Equality of the Net Momentum Outflow to the Net Force in x direction :
( )
0
x s x w
d
u u u dy
dx
o
t =
}
This is know as the Integral Momentum Equation in Laminar Boundary Layer.

Heat Transfer
Integral Energy Equation can be derived in a similar way.
Control Volume similar to that of
Integral Momentum Equation is
considered, but extending beyond
the limits of both Velocity
Boundary Layer and Thermal
Boundary Layer.
Principle of Conservation of Energy
applied involves :
1. Enthalpy and Kinetic Energy of
Fluid entering and leaving.
2. Heat Transfer by Conduction.
Kinetic Energy can be neglected
as it is very small.
A
B
C
D
y
Velocity Boundary
Layer,
Thermal
Boundary
Layer,
T

Heat Transfer
Enthalpy Flow Rate across face AB :
0
s
y
p x
C u t dy
}
Enthalpy Flow Rate across face CD :
0 0
.
s s
y y
p x p x
d
C u t dy C u t dy dx
dx
+
} }
Fluid also enters the control Volume
across face BD at the rate :
0
.
s
y
x
d
u dy dx
dx

}
= Flow rate out face CD
Flow rate in face AB
Enthalpy Flow will be :
0
.
s
y
p s x
d
C t u dy dx
dx

}

Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer by Conduction is :
0 y
t
k dx
y
=
| | c
|
c
\ .
Beyond the Thermal Boundary Layer, the temperature is constant at t
s
.
Integration needs to be carried out only up to y =

T
.
Above equation changes to :
( )
0 0
0
T
s x
y
d t
t t u dy
dx y
o
o
=
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
}
This is know as the Integral Energy Equation in Laminar Boundary Layer.
Conservation of Energy gives :
0 0 0
. . 0
s s
y y
p s x p x
y
d d t
C t u dy dx C u t dy dx k dx
dx dx y

=
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
} }

Heat Transfer
Laminar Forced Convection on Flat Plate
Integral Momentum Equation and Integral Energy Equation are applied to solve the
equation for Laminar Forced Convection.
Analysis assumes uniform Viscosity with Temperature.
Apply Integral Momentum Equation to derive for Velocity Boundary Layer Thickness.
STEP 1 :
Velocity profile assumed to be : u
x
=a +by +cy
2
+dy
3
Constants a, b, c and d are found by applying known Boundary Conditions :
u
x
= 0 at y = 0. a = 0.

u
x
= u
s
at y = .
0
x
u
y
o
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
at y =
u
x
and u
y
= 0
2
2
0
x
u
y
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
at y = 0
This yields;
b =
3
2
u
s

c = 0 d =
- 1
2
u
s

3

Heat Transfer
This yields;
3
3 1
2 2
x
s
u y y
u o o
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
Apply Integral Momentum Equation,
STEP 2 :
( )
0
x s x w
d
u u u dy
dx
o
t =
}
3 3
2
0
3 1 3 1
. 1
2 2 2 2
s
d y y y y
u dy
dx
o
o o o o
( (
| | | | | | | |
= +
( (
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
( (

}
0
x
y
du
dy
=
| |
=
|
\ .

Heat Transfer
Wall Shear Stress is found by considering Velocity Gradient at y =0 and is =
3
2
u
s

2
39 3
280 2
s
s
u d
u
dx
o
o
=

2
3 280
2 39
s
s
u
u d dx o
o
=
140
13
s
d dx
u
v
o o = Integration yields;
2
140
2 13
s
x
C
u
o v
= +
= 0 at x = 0.
C = 0
2
280
13
s
x
u
v
o =
OR
1/ 2
4.64
(Re) x
o
=

Heat Transfer
Temperature Distribution in the Thermal Boundary Layer can be found out in similar
manner.
Applying the known Boundary Conditions and solving for the constants d, e and f ;
3
3 1
2 2
s T T
y y u
u o o
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
Temperature profile assumed to be :
x
=( t t
w
) =dy +ey
2
+fy
3
STEP 1 :
Apply Integral Energy Equation,
STEP 2 :
( )
0 0
0
T
s x
y
d
u dy
dx y
o
u
u u o
=
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
}

Heat Transfer
0
3
2
s
T
y
y
u u
o o
o
=
| | | | c
=
| |
c
\ . \ .
From the Temperature Distribution Equation;
3 3
0
3 1 3 1 3
.
2 2 2 2 2
T
s
S S S S
T T T T T
d y y y y
u u dy
dx
o
u
u u o
o o o o o
( (
| | | | | | | | | |
( ( + =
| | | | |
( (
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .

}
This yields;
Substituting as =
T
/ ; gives;
3
3 3 3
20 280 2
s
S S T
T
d
u
dx
u
u o o
o
| |
(
| |
=
| |
(
\ .

\ .

Heat Transfer
Neglecting as 3
3
/ 280 as very small term; and substituting for from;
1/ 2
4.64
(Re) x
o
=
3/ 4 3
0.93
1
Pr
h T
x
x
o
o
(
| | | |
=
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

where, x
h
is the length of the start of the heated section.
If the plate is heating along its entire length, x
h
=0
1/3
0.93
Pr
T
o
o
| |
=
|
\ .
OR
1/3
1
(Pr)
T
o
o
=
x
h

x

y

Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer at the wall is :
0
3
2
S
w
T
y
q k k
y
u u
o
=
| | c
= =
|
c
\ .
..from Temperature
Distribution Profile
This Heat Transfer rate is expressed as and is the Heat Transfer
Coefficient, h
3
2
w
S T
q k
u o
=
The group is a dimensionless number.
h x
k
This is known as Nusselt Number, and is denoted by ( Nu )
h x
Nu
k
=

Heat Transfer
T
characterstic Linear Dimensionof the System
Nu
Equivalent conducting filmof thicknesso
=
'

T
w
T
S
Equivalent
Conducting Film

Heat Transfer
Thus,
.
w S S
T T
k k
q h h u u
o o
| |
= = =
|
' '
\ .

T
h x x
Nu
k o
= =
'
This gives Nu as ;
1/2 1/3
1/3
3 3 (Re) (Pr)
2 2(0.93) (4.64)
w
x
S T
q x x x
Nu
k x u o
= = =
This gives Local Nusselt Number at some point x from the leading edge of the plate.
The average value of the Convection Coefficient, h over the distance of 0 to x is given by;
0
1
x
h hdx
x
=
}
This gives ;
3 / 1 2 / 1
(Pr) ) (Re 332 . 0
x x
Nu =
Thus, Average Nusselt No. is;
3 / 1 2 / 1
(Pr) ) (Re 664 . 0
x x
Nu =

Heat Transfer
Example 12
Air flows at 5 m/sec. along a flat plate maintained at 77 C. Bulk air temperature is 27 C.
Determine at 0.1 mtr from the leading edge the velocity an temperature boundary layer
thickness and local as well as average heat transfer coefficient.
Bulk Mean Temperature =
77 27
52 325
2
C K
+
= =
=1.084 kg / m
3
k = 28.1 X 10
-6
kW / m.K
= 1.965 X 10
-5
Pa.sec
Pr = 0.703
( )
1/2
0.1
0.1
4.64
Re
x
x
o
| |
| |
= |
|
|
\ .
\ .
( )
1/ 2 0.1
0.1
4.64
(0.1) 2.789
(Re )
mm o = =
..Ans (i)
( )
0.1
0.1
Re
x
u x
| |
=
|
\ .
5
(1.087)(5)(0.1)
27, 659.03
1.965 10 X

= =

Heat Transfer
Example 12.cntd
1/3
0.1
0.1
1
(Pr)
T
o
o
| |
| |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
( )
1/3
0.1
1
(2.789) 3.134
(0.703)
T
mm o = =
..Ans (ii)
( ) ( ) ( )
1/ 2 1/3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.332 Re Pr
x x
h x
Nu
k
| |
( (
= =
|

\ .
( )
( ) ( )
1/ 2 1/3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.664 Re Pr
x x
h x
Nu
k
| |
( (
= =
|

\ .
| | | |
K m kW X
X
h
. / 10 8 . 13
1 . 0
10 1 . 28
) 703 . 0 ( ) 03 . 659 , 27 ( 332 . 0 ) (
2 3
6
3 / 1 2 / 1
1 . 0
=
=
..Ans (iii)
..Ans (iv) K m kW X . / 10 6 . 27
2 3
=

Heat Transfer
Laminar Forced Convection in a Tube
Case for :
1. Fully Developed Flow, and
2. Constant Heat Flux.
Velocity Profile of Parabolic shape.
To derive Energy Equation for flow in tube :
Consider a cylindrical element of flow.
Length, dx
Inner Radius, r
Outer Radius, r +dr
Energy Flow into and out of the element in :
1. Radial direction by Conduction, and 2. Axial direction by Convection.

Heat Transfer
Conduction into the element :
r
T
dx r k Q
r
c
c
= t 2
With change of radius dr, Conduction rate :
dr
r
T
r
r
dx k dr
r
Q
r
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
t 2
This change in Conduction rate = Difference between Convection rates into and
out of the element in Axial Direction.
Temperature changes in Axial Direction.
Rate of Convection into the element : T C u dr r
p
t 2 =
Rate of Convection out of the element :
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ = dx
x
T
T C u dr r
p
t 2
Hence, the difference is :
dx
x
T
C u dr r
p
c
c
= t 2

Heat Transfer
Summation of total Forces is zero.
x
T
k
C
r
T
r
r r u
p
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c

1
This is the ENERGY EQUATION FOR LAMINAR FLOW IN TUBES.
Assumptions :

1. Constant Heat Flow, q
w,

2. Constant Fluid properties,
t Cons
x
T
tan =
c
c
Temperature of the fluid (at any radius) must
increase linearly in the direction of flow.

Heat Transfer
equation reduces to Total Differential Equation.
t Cons
x
T
tan =
c
c
Velocity, u Velocity at the Axis of tube, u

a
and Radius, r.
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
w a
r
r
u
u
.assuming Parabolic Distribution.
.r
w
= wall radius.
Boundary Conditions :
0 0 = =
c
c
r at
r
T
w w
r r at T T = =
w
r
w
r r at
r
T
k q
w
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
1.
2.
3.
Heat Flux is related to Temperature Gradient.

Heat Transfer
Applying the Boundary Conditions :
0 0 = =
c
c
r at
r
T
1.
C
1
=0
w w
r r at T T = = 2.
16
3 1
2
2
w
a w
r
u
x
T
T C
c
c
=
o
Thus, Equation becomes :
w
w w
w a
T
r
r
r
r
r u
x
T
T +
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
16
3
16
1
4
1 1
4 2
2
o
Substituting this value in the
above Equation would give;
r
r
r
u
x
T
r
T
r
r
w
a
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
2
1
1
o
Integrating for two times,
would give :
2 1
2
4 2
ln
16 4
1
C r C
r
r r
u
x
T
T
w
a
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
o

Heat Transfer
Equation can be expressed in terms of Temperature Difference : =T - T
w

a
= Temperature Difference between axis ( r =0 ) and wall.
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
16
3 1
2
w a a
r u
x
T
o
u
Temperature Profile can be expressed non dimensionally as :

4 2
3
1
3
4
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
w w a
r
r
r
r
u
u
Heat Transfer at wall Temperature Gradient at r =r
w

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
w
a
w w
a
r
r r r dr
d
w
u
u
u
3
4
3
4
3
8

Heat Transfer
On the similar lines;
a
w
a
r
w
h
r
k
r
k q
w
u
u u
= =
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
3
4
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
w
r
k
h
3
4
In terms of Nu
d
:
3
8 2
3
4
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
k
r
r
k
k
d h
Nu
w
w
d
This analysis is based on the Temperature Difference between the Axis and the Wall.
From practical point of view, analysis for Temperature Difference between the Bulk
and the Wall is important.
Bulk Temperature = Mean Temperature of the fluid.

Heat Transfer
Temperature Difference based on
Bulk Temperature is given as;
}
}
=
w
w
r
p
r
p
m
C u dr r
C u dr r
0
0
2
2
t
u t
u
Solution of the Equation is :
a m
u u
72
44
=
Heat Transfer
at the wall is :
m m
w w
a
r
w
h
r
k
r
k
r
k q
w
u u
u u
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
= -
44
72
3
4
3
4
44
72
3
4
-
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
w
r
k
h

Heat Transfer
In terms of Nu
d
:
44
72 2
3
4
-
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
k
r
r
k
k
d h
Nu
w
w
d
44
72
3
8
- =
d
Nu
36 . 4 =
d
Nu
NOTE : The Nu is INDEPENDENT of Re as the Fully Developed flow,
Boundary Layer Thickness = Tube Radius.

Heat Transfer
Reynolds Analogy
Till now, the analysis of Forced Convection for Laminar Flow is carried out.
Turbulent flow demands for introduction of additional terms into Momentum
Equation and Energy Equation to take into consideration the presence of Turbulence.
Demands for Numerical Solution for Finite Difference Equations.

Approach for Turbulent Flow Convection Similarities between Equations for :
1. Heat Transfer and
2. Shear Stress (OR Momentum Transfer)
Original Idea of such Analogy is put forth by Reynolds;
and hence named after him.

Heat Transfer
Reynolds Analogy
Equation for Shear Stress in Laminar Flow is :
dy
du
dy
du
v t = =
where, is the Kinematic Viscosity.
Similar equation for Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow is :
dy
du
T
c t =
The term, is known as Eddy Diffusivity.
Shear Stress due to Random Turbulent Motion.

Turbulent Flow
Presence of Viscous Shear Stress also.
Total Shear Stress is :

( )
dy
du
c v t + =
is not a Property of fluid, like
Re and Turbulence Level.
generally >>

Heat Transfer
Shear Stress at Solid Surface
Reynolds Analogy implies that;
Heat Transfer at surface of Flat Plate / Tube = Shear Stress acting on the surface
Shear Stress
Substituting in Equation of
0 y
u
y
=
| | c
|
c
\ .
Thus, for Laminar Flow on Flat Plate,
x from leading edge,
Reynolds Number (Re
x
),
Free Stream Velocity u
s
( )
1/ 2
0.647
Re
f
x
C =
}
C
f
is known as Skin Friction Coefficient,
2
1
2
w
f
S
C
u
t
=
For Laminar Flow, the average value of C
d
for length x = 2 . C
f

Heat Transfer
For Turbulent Flow;
( )
1/5
0.0583 Re
f x
C

=
And,
( )
2.58
0.455
log Re
d
x
C =
(

These are Empirical Correlations Laminar + Turbulent portion of Boundary Layer.
The Ratio
Velocity at limit of Boundary Layer
Free Stream Velocity
(Re
x
)
( )
0.1
2.12
Re
b
S
x
u
u
=

Heat Transfer
Corresponding relationships for Flow in Tubes :
Expressed in terms of Friction Factor, f:
2
4.
4.
1
2
w
f
m
f C
u
t
= =
u
m
= Mean Velocity of Flow.
Laminar Flow :
64
Re
d
f =
Turbulent Flow :
( )
1/ 4
0.308
Re
d
f =
( )
1/8
2.44
Re
b
S
d
u
u
=
}
for Smooth Surfaces.
NOTE : Values for Rough Surfaces
are much higher.

Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer across Boundary Layer
Laminar Flow : Heat Transfer across flow Only by Conduction.
Fouriers Law :
P
dT
q C
dy
o =
Turbulent Flow : Energy will also be transmitted through Random Turbulent Motion.
( )
P q
dT
q C
dy
o c = +
q
is known as Thermal Eddy Diffusivity.

Heat Transfer
Basis for Reynolds Analogy
Heat Transfer at surface of Flat Plate / Tube = Shear Stress acting on the surface
Laminar Flow, compare
P
dT
q C
dy
o =
du
dy
t v = and
Turbulent Flow, compare
( )
P q
dT
q C
dy
o c = +
( )
du
dy
t o v = +
and
We know, / = Prandtl Number, (Pr)
Similarly, /
q
= Turbulent Prandtl Number.
NOTE : This is NOT a Property of the fluid.

Heat Transfer
Assumptions for Reynolds Analogy
1. =
q
. An eddy of fluid with certain Temperature and Velocity is transferred
to a different state, then it assumes its new Temperature and Velocity
in equal time.
This assumption is found practically valid as;
/
q
varies between 1.0 and 1.6
2. q and have

same ratio at all values of y .
True when Temperature Profile and Velocity Profile are identical.
i.e. Pr = 1....Laminar Flow

q
..Turbulent Flow Since, and << and
q

1
q q
v c c
o c c
+
~ ~
+

Heat Transfer
Simple Reynolds Analogy
Flow is assumed to be Full laminar OR Full Turbulent with Pr =1.
Laminar Flow : Comparing the Equations,
P
dT
q C
dy
o =
du
dy
t v = and
q k dT
du t
=
This gives q / at any arbitrary plane
= q
w
/
w
at wall..according to Assumptions.

( )
w S w
w S
q T T k
u t

=

Heat Transfer
Turbulent Flow : Comparing the Equations,
( )
P q
dT
q C
dy
o c = +
( )
du
dy
t o v = +
and
( )
( )
P q
C
q dT
du
o c
t v c
+
=
+
( )
w S w
P
w S
q T T
C
u t

=

Heat Transfer
( )
w S w
w S
q T T k
u t

=
( )
w S w
P
w S
q T T
C
u t

=
and are clearly identical if Pr =1
i.e. .C
p
/ k =1
i.e. C
p
=k /

Rearranging the terms;
w w P
S S
q C
h
u
t
u
= =
where,
s
=( T
s
T
w
)
2
f
P s
C
h C u =
2
f
P s
C
h
C u
=
This gives Convection Coefficient h in terms of
Skin Friction Factor, C
f
P s
h
C u
is known as Stanton Number and denoted by ( St ).

is dimensionless.

Re.
Nu
St
Pr
=

Heat Transfer
Further re-arranging the terms;
2
f
P s
C
x x
h C u
k k
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
2
f
s
C
u x x
h
k

| |
=
|
\ .
as .C
p
/ k =1
i.e. C
p
=k /

Re
2
f
x x
C
Nu =
( )
1/ 2
0.647
Re
f
x
C = We know,
( )
1/2
0.323 Re
x x
Nu =
With Integral Boundary Layer Equations for Laminar Flow on Flat Plate,
( ) ( )
1/2
1/3
0.332 Re Pr
x
Nu =
With Pr =1,
( )
1/2
0.332 Re
x
Nu =

Heat Transfer
For the Flow in Tubes;
s
and u
s
are replaced by corresponding Mean Values,
m
and u
m
.
2
f
m
C
u d d
h
k

| |
=
|
\ .
Re
2
f
d d
C
Nu =
( )
1/4
4. 0.308 Re
f d
f C

= =
We know,
( )
0.75
0.038 Re
d d
Nu =

Heat Transfer
Prandtl Taylor Modification
Prandtl and Taylor had modified the Reynolds Analogy to take into account the
variation of Prandtl Number.
Prandtl Taylor Modification is valid for 0.5 <Pr <250.
Reynolds Analogy modified by Prandtl and Taylor :
( )
1
1 Pr 1
w S
P
b
w S
S
q
C
u
u
u
u
t
=
+
Introducing the term C
f
:
( )
1
2
1 Pr 1
f
w
S P
b
S w
S
C
q
u C
u
u
u t
=
+

Heat Transfer
Prandtl Taylor Modification
Turbulent Flow on Flat Plate :
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
4/5
1/10
0.0292 Re Pr
1 2.12 Re Pr 1
x
x
x
Nu

=
+
Turbulent Flow in Round Tubes :
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3/ 4
1/8
0.0386 Re Pr
1 2.44 Re Pr 1
x
x
x
Nu

=
+

Heat Transfer
Example 13
Compare the heat transfer coefficients for water flowing at an average fluid temperature
of 100 C, and at a velocity of 0.232 m/sec. in a 2.54 cm bore pipe; using simple Reynolds
Analogy and Prandtl Taylor Modification.

At 100 C, Pr = 1.74, k = 0.68 kW / m.K, = 0.0294 X 10
-5
m
2
/ sec.
( )
0.75
0.038 Re
d d
Nu =
Simple Reynolds Analogy gives :
62.5
d
Nu =
. Nu k
h
d
=
3
(62.5) (0.68 10 )
0.0254
1.675 / .
X
kW m K
=
=
..Ans (i)
Reynolds Number is :
( )
Re
u d
v
| |
=
|
\ .
000 , 20
10 0294 . 0
) 0254 . 0 )( 232 . 0 (
5
= =

X

Heat Transfer
Example 13cntd.
With Prandtl Taylor Modification :
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3/ 4
1/8
0.0386 Re Pr
1 2.44 Re Pr 1
d
d
d
Nu

=
+
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3/ 4
1/8
0.0386 20, 000 1.74
72.4
1 2.44 20, 000 1.74 1
d
Nu

= =
+
. Nu k
h
d
=
3
(72.4) (0.68 10 )
0.0254
1.973 / .
X
kW m K
=
=
..Ans (ii)

Heat Transfer
Dimensional Analysis
Convection Heat Transfer Analysis
Difficult to approach analytically.

Easy to deal with Dimensional Analysis +
Experiments.
Equations in terms of important physical quantities in

dimensionless groups.
Given Process n different physical variables.
Q
1
, Q
2
, Q
3
, .Q
n
.
Composed of k independent dimensional quantities.
(e.g. Length, Mass, Time, etc.)

Heat Transfer
Buckinghams Pi Theorem :
Dimensionally Homogeneous Equation ( n k ) dimensional groups.
f
1
( Q
1
, Q
2
, Q
3
, ..Q
n
) = 0
Then, f
2
(
1
,
2
,
3
, ..
n-k
) = 0
Each term, composed of Q variables in form;
= Q
1
a
, Q
2
b
, Q
3
c
, ..Q
n
x
) = 0 and is dimensionless.
Thus, a set of terms includes all independent dimensionless groups.
No term can be formed by combining other terms.
Set of Equations for a, b, c, ..x by equating the sum of components of each
independent dimensions to Zero.
k Equations for n unknowns.

Heat Transfer
Dimensional Analysis.Example
Consider the Differential Equation for Momentum and Energy Transfer for Forced
Convection in Laminar Flow.
2
2
x x
x
x y
u u
u P
u u
x y y x

c c
| | c c
+ =
|
c c c c
\ .
2 2
2 2
x y
t t t t
u u
x y x y
o
| | c c c c
+ = +
|
c c c c
\ .
Dependent Variable : Convection Coefficient, h
Independent : 1. Velocity, u
Variables 2. Linear Dimension, l
3. Thermal Conductivity, k
4. Viscosity,
5. Specific Heat, C
p
6. Density,
Independent : 1. Mass, M
Dimensional 2. Length, L
Quantities 3. Time, T
4. Temperature,
5. Heat, H..Assumed.

6. H / in case of ( h, k & Cp)

Heat Transfer
Thus; 7 Physical Variables.
4 Independent Quantities.
( n k ) =3 terms obtained.
4 Variables, which involve all 4 dimensions and DO NOT form any dimensionless group
within, are : u, l, k and .
h k l u
d c b a
1 1 1 1
1
t =
P
d c b a
C k l u
2 2 2 2
2
t =
t
3 3 3 3
3
d c b a
k l u =
The term
1
can be written as :
( )
u u T L
H
T L
M
T L
H
L
T
L
d c
b
a
2
1 1
1
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|

Heat Transfer
Following Equations for a
1
, b
1
, c
1
and d
1
can be obtained :
L : a
1
+b
1
c
1
d
1
2 =0
T : a
1
c
1
d
1
1 =0
H / : c
1
+1 =0
M : d
1
=0
This implies :
a
1
=0
b
1
=1
c
1
=(-1)
d
1
=0
1
term is =
Nu
k
l h
=

Heat Transfer
Thus, the result is :
2
( Nu, Pr, Re ) =0
Nu = ( Pr, Re )
This agrees with Reynolds Analogy, i.e.

Nu =f ( Pr, Re )
Similarly,
2
term is = Pr =
k
C
P
And,
3
term is =
Re =
l u

Heat Transfer
Scale Model Testing is the valuable practical application of use of such Dimensionless
Analysis.
With such models, the performance of the projected design can be estimated.
Pre requisites : 1. Model must be geometrically similar to the full scale design.
2. Re, Pr must be reproduced correctly.
This helps to predict : 1. Flow Patterns.
2. Thermal Boundary Layer.
3. Fluid Boundary Layer.
4. Nusselt Number ( Nu ).

Heat Transfer
Empirical Relations for Forced Convection
A. Laminar Flow in Tubes :
Average Nusselt Number at distance x from the entry is given by :
( ) ( )
0.14
1/3
1/3 1/3
1.86 Re Pr
d d
w
d
Nu
x

| |
| |
=
|
|
\ .
\ .
All physical properties are to be evaluated at Arithmetic Mean Bulk Temperature,
m
except
w
at Wall Temperature.

Equation is valid for Heating as well as Cooling, in the range,

( ) ( )
1/3
1/3 1/3
100 Re Pr 10, 000
d
d
x
| |
< <
|
\ .

Heat Transfer
B. Turbulent Flow in Tubes :
For 1. Fluids with Pr =1
2. Moderate Temperature Difference between fluid and wall
( 5 C for Liquids and 55 C for Gases )
( ) ( )
0.8
0.023 Re Pr
n
d d
Nu =
m
n = 0.4..Heating
= 0.3...Cooling

Re 10, 000
d
> Equation is valid for :

Equation is for Fully Developed Flow, i.e. ( x / d ) >> 60.

Heat Transfer
B. Turbulent Flow in Tubes :
For larger Temperature Difference and wide range of Prandtl Numbers,

( ) ( )
0.14
0.8 1/3
0.027 Re Pr
d d
w
Nu

| |
=
|
\ .
Equation is valid for :

0.7 < Pr < 16,700
m
except
w
at Wall Temperature.

Heat Transfer
C. Turbulent Flow along Flat Plate :
( )
( )
1/3
0.8
0.036 Pr Re 18, 700
d d
Nu =
m
Equation is based on :

1. Laminar Flow, i.e.
2. Turbulent Flow after Transition at Re =40,000.
3. 10 > Pr > 0.6
( ) ( )
1/2 1/3
0.664 Re Pr
x x
Nu =

Heat Transfer
D. Heat Transfer to Liquid Metals :
Liquid Metals very low Prandtl Number

For 1. Turbulent Flow

2. Smooth Pipes / Tubes
a ) Uniform Wall Heat Flux :

( )
0.4
0.625 Re Pr
d d
Nu =
b ) Constant Wall Temperature :

( )
0.8
5.0 0.025 Re Pr
d d
Nu = +
m
Equation is for : 1. ( x / d ) >> 60.
2. 10
2
< (Re
d
Pr) <10
4

Heat Transfer
Natural Convection
Energy Exchange between a body and an essentially stagnant fluid surrounding it.
Fluid Motion is due entirely to Buoyancy Forces caused by Density Variation of the fluid.
Natural Convection Object dissipating its Energy to the surrounding.
1. Intentional : Cooling of any Machine.

Heating of house or room
2. Unintentional : Loss through Steam Pipe.
Dissipation of warmth to the cold air
outside the window or room

Heat Transfer
Fluid Flow due to Natural Convection has both Laminar and Turbulent regimes.
Natural Convection
Boundary Layer produced has ZERO Velocity at both, 1. Solid Surface and
2. At the Outer Limit.
u =0 u =0
T
w
Bulk Fluid Temperature
Velocity Distribution
Direction of
induced Motion

Heat Transfer
Laminar Flow over Flat Plate
Solution for Boundary Layer Momentum Equation and Energy Equation is possible
with introduction of a term known as Body Force.
This is then followed by Dimensional Analysis.
Body Force :
s
= Density of Cold Undisturbed Fluid.
= Density of warmer fluid.
= Temperature Difference between the two fluid regimes.
( ).
S
g
Buoyancy Force =
s
is related to by : (1 )
S
|u = +
= Coefficient of Cubical Expansion of fluid.
( )
1 . . . . g g |u | u + = (

Buoyancy Force =
Independent Variables for calculation of h
Addition of Buoyancy Force ( , g, )

along with fluid properties ( , C
p
, , k, and linear dimension l )

Heat Transfer
8 Physical Variables
5 Dimensionless Quantities
}
3 terms are expected.
H and are not combined; as the Temperature Difference is now an important
Physical Variable.
5 Physical Variables selected common to all terms are : ( , , k, and l )
h, C
p
and ( g ) each appear in separate terms.
1 1 1 1 1
1
a b c d e
k l h t u =
2 2 2 2 2
2
a b c d e
P
k l C t u =
3 3 3 3 3
3
a b c d e
k l g t u | =

Heat Transfer
Solving for a, b, c, d, and eas Constants, and substituting;
1
hl
Nu
k
t = =
2
P
C
Pr
k
t = =
2 3 3
3
2 2
g l g l | u | u
t
v
= =
The Dimensionless Relationship obtained is :
( , Pr, ) 0 Nu Gr | = =
( , Pr) Nu Gr | =
OR
( )
Buoyancy Force
Grashof Number Gr
Shear Force
=
Buoyancy Force in Natural Convection Momentum Force in Forced Convection.
This
3
is known as Grashof Number and denoted by ( Gr ).

Heat Transfer
By experimental studies, it is found that,
( , Pr) Nu Gr | =
is corrected to :
( , Pr)
b
Nu a Gr =
where a and b are Constants.
This product, ( Gr . Pr ) is known as Rayleigh Number,
and denoted by ( Ra ).
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow takes place in the
range of :
10
7
< ( Gr . Pr ) < 10
9

Heat Transfer
Formulae for Natural Convection
0.25
0.525( .Pr)
d d
Nu Gr =
when 10
4
< ( Gr
d
. Pr ) < 10
9
(Laminar Flow)

0.33
0.129( .Pr)
d d
Nu Gr =
when 10
9
< ( Gr
d
. Pr ) < 10
12
(Turbulent Flow)

Below ( Gr
d
. Pr ) = 10
4
; No such relationship exists and Nu reduces to 0.4
With such low values of ( Gr
d
. Pr ) the Boundary Layer Thickness becomes
appreciable as compared to the diameter.
In case of thin wires, Heat Transfer occurs in the limit by Conduction through the
stagnant film.
All physical properties are to be evaluated at Average of Surface and Bulk Fluid
Temperature; which is the Mean Film Temperature.

A. Horizontal Cylinder :

Heat Transfer
B. Vertical Surfaces :
l
l
Characteristic Linear Dimension is the Length or Height of the surface, l
Boundary Layer results from the vertical motion of the fluid.
Length of Boundary Layer is important than its Width.

0.25
0.59( .Pr)
d l
Nu Gr =
when 10
4
< ( Gr
d
. Pr ) < 10
9
(Laminar Flow)

0.33
0.129( .Pr)
d d
Nu Gr =
when 10
9
< ( Gr
d
. Pr ) < 10
12
(Turbulent Flow)

Heat Transfer
C. Horizontal Flat Surfaces :
Fluid Flow is most restricted in case of horizontal surfaces.
Also, Heat Transfer Coefficient varies depending whether
the horizontal surface is above or below the fluid.
Square / Rectangular Surface up to l = 2 ft ( Mean Length of side )
For Cold fluid above Hot surface
OR Hot fluid below Cold surface
0.25
0.54( .Pr)
d l
Nu Gr =
when 10
5
< ( Gr
d
. Pr ) < 10
8
(Laminar Flow)

0.33
0.14( .Pr)
d d
Nu Gr =
When ( Gr
d
. Pr ) >10
8
(Turbulent Flow)

Heat Transfer
C. Horizontal Flat Surfaces :
For Cold fluid below Hot surface
OR Hot fluid above Cold surface
Convective motion is surely restricted surface itself prevents vertical
motion.
Therefore, only Laminar Flow is possible with,
0.25
0.25( .Pr)
d d
Nu Gr =
When ( Gr
d
. Pr ) >10
5


Heat Transfer
D. Approximate Formulae for Air :
Convective Convection mainly deals with Air as a fluid medium;
Air properties do not vary greatly over limited temperature range.
It is possible to derive simplified formulae for Air as :
1 3
1 3
2
1
tan
tan

=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
b b
b b
b
P
b
l X t Cons
l
C g
k t Cons h
u
u
|
It could be found out that
b = 0.25..Laminar Flow
b = 0.33.Turbulent Flow
Index for l = ( -0.25 ).Laminar Flow

= 0 ..Turbulent Flow
25 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
=
l
C h
u
.Laminar Flow
33 . 0
u C h =
.Turbulent Flow
AND

Heat Transfer
Geometry / Orientation Relation
Horizontal Cylinders :
d = diameter
Laminar

Turbulent
Vertical Surfaces : Laminar
l = height
Turbulent

Vertical Surfaces : ( l length of side )
Hot, facing upwards
Laminar
Cold, facing downwards
Turbulent
Hot, facing downwards
Cold, facing upwards
Laminar
{
{
{
{
25 . 0
00131 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
=
d
h
u
33 . 0
) ( 00124 . 0 u = h
25 . 0
00141 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
=
l
h
u
33 . 0
) ( 00131 . 0 u = h
25 . 0
00131 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
=
l
h
u
33 . 0
) ( 00152 . 0 u = h
25 . 0
00058 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
=
l
h
u
h is given in terms of ( kW / m
2
.K ) is given in terms of ( C )
l, the linear dimension is given in terms of (m )
D. Approximate Formulae for Air :

Heat Transfer
Thank You !

Heat Transfer & Thermodynamics

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Heat Transfer

S. Y. B. Tech. Prod Engg.

156 . 2 1380 / ) 82 . 10 )( 275 ( /

Alternate method of integrating Convection Heat Loss;

, dx and dy can not be Zero. Hence; 0 =

Net Viscous Shear Force in x - direction is;

Net Pressure Force in x - direction is;

Momentum Flow into Control Volume in x direction :

Integration needs to be carried out only up to y =

Velocity, u Velocity at the Axis of tube, u

Temperature Profile can be expressed non dimensionally as :

Demands for Numerical Solution for Finite Difference Equations.

Presence of Viscous Shear Stress also.

Total Shear Stress is :

Difficult to approach analytically.

Equations in terms of important physical quantities in

This agrees with Reynolds Analogy, i.e.

For 1. Turbulent Flow

1. Intentional : Cooling of any Machine.

Addition of Buoyancy Force ( , g, )

It is possible to derive simplified formulae for Air as :

Index for l = ( -0.25 ).Laminar Flow

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Heat Transfer &amp; Thermodynamics

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Did you find this document useful?

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Copyright:

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Heat Transfer &amp; Thermodynamics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Heat Transfer

S. Y. B. Tech. Prod Engg.

156 . 2 1380 / ) 82 . 10 )( 275 ( /

Alternate method of integrating Convection Heat Loss;

, dx and dy can not be Zero. Hence; 0 =

Net Viscous Shear Force in x - direction is;

Net Pressure Force in x - direction is;

Momentum Flow into Control Volume in x direction :

Integration needs to be carried out only up to y =

Velocity, u Velocity at the Axis of tube, u

Temperature Profile can be expressed non dimensionally as :

Demands for Numerical Solution for Finite Difference Equations.

Presence of Viscous Shear Stress also.

Total Shear Stress is :

Difficult to approach analytically.

Equations in terms of important physical quantities in

This agrees with Reynolds Analogy, i.e.

For 1. Turbulent Flow

1. Intentional : Cooling of any Machine.

Addition of Buoyancy Force ( , g, )

It is possible to derive simplified formulae for Air as :

Index for l = ( -0.25 ).Laminar Flow

You might also like

Heat Transfer & Thermodynamics

Heat Transfer & Thermodynamics