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WELDING METALLURGY

Welding of Steels

HEAT FLOW IN WELDING


In welding the reactions take place within seconds in a small volume of metal, characterized by.

High peak temperatures


High temperature gradients Rapid heating and cooling

Concept of moving heat sources


Most welding processes, heat source

not stationary, moves at constant speed along a straight line Power output constant with time
Consequence: Fused zone and heat-affected zone(s) of constant width Quasi-stationary heat source

THE TRANSFER OF HEAT in the weldment is


governed primarily by the time-dependent conduction of heat,

x = coordinate in welding direction, mm y = coordinate transverse to weld, mm z = coordinate normal to weldment surface, mm T = the temperature in the weldment, C k(T) = thermal conductivity of the metal,J/mm-s-0C p = density of the metal, g/mm3 C = specific heat of the metal, J/g' C Q = rate of internal heat generation, W/mm3

Rosenthals analysis of heat flow in welding - Moving Heat Sources


Consider a schematic of stationary work piece.

Heat flow in a work piece of sufficient length is steady or quasistationary, w.r.t the moving heat source except for the initial and final transients of welding i.e the temperature distribution and the pool geometry do not change with time for an observer moving with the heat source

Rosenthal's Two-Dimensional Equation

To calculate the temperature T(x, y) at any location in the workpiece (x, y) with respect to the moving heat source

Rosenthal's Three-Dimensional Equation

This eq. implies that on the transverse cross section of the weld all isotherms, including the fusion boundary and the outer boundary of the heat-affected zone, are semicircular in shape

By converting distance x into time t through t = (x - 0)/V one can get the Temp.-Time curve i.e THERMAL CYCLE
Calculated results from Rosenthal's three-dimensional heat flow equation..

Thermal cycles

Isotherms

material: 1018 steel. Welding speed: 2.4mm/s; heat input: 3200 W:

Adams' Equations ..for calculating peak temp.( Tp) adjacent to HAZ


Two -dimensional heat flow

For three-dimensional heat flow.

Adams' Equations differs from Rosenthal's by

As Rosenthal's Equations measures the temp. at any place in w/p w.r.t


moving heat source while Adams' Equations gives the peak temp.( Tp) at any dist from the fusion boundary adjacent to HAZ

COOLING RATES

R the cooling rate at the weld center line, C/s k thermal conductivity of the metal, J/mms- C To = the initial plate temperature Tc the temperature at which the cooling rate is calculated, C

h = thickness of the base metal, mm = density of base metal, g/mm3 C = specific heat of base metal, J/g C C = volumetric specific heat, 0.0044 j/mm3-C for steels

Cooling rates in various processes

Process

Relative arc efficiency(%)


65 - 85 (1.0, accg. To BS) 65 - 85 (1.0) 65 - 85 (1.0) 50 - 80 ( 0.8) 20 - 50 80 - 99 (1.25) 80 95 0.5 - 70

SMAW GMAW Cored wire GTAW (dcen) (ac) SAW EBW Laser W

Cooling rate and welding conditions


Two-dimensional and three-dimensional cooling

Three-dimensional (thick plates, requiring 6 or more passes) : Cooling rate CR = 2k (Tc T0)2 H , where k = Thermal conductivity T0 = Initial plate temperature Tc = Temp. at which CR is calculated H = Arc energy Note: Underwater welding Wet: very rapid cooling Dry, hyperbaric welding: Also high CR (conductivity of compressed atmosphere)

Two-dimensional (thin plates, requiring fewer than 4 passes) : Cooling rate CR = 2kC (h/H)2 (Tc T0)3 , where h = Base metal thickness (Combined thickness) = Density of base metal C = Specific heat of base metal Note: CR as section thickness , at constant heat input
Single and two-pass welds : Heat input proportional to h, so effectively CR is independent of thickness (approx.)

Number of heat flow paths also to be considered 3 for fillet welds and 2 for butt welds
Combined thickness = Total thickness of those paths providing the heat flow paths Varying thickness : Averaged for a distance of 75 mm from weld line Current practice : Cooling time between two temperatures Common : t 8-5 (between 800 and 5000C range of transformation in most C- and C-Mn steels) t 3-1 (Time for H to diffuse out of weld area)

Weld thermal cycles


Max. temperature (and cooling rate) decreases on going away from weld metal

Faster heating

Faster cooling

Higher heat input [(V x I)/s in arc welding)]


Slower cooling

Thick sections cool faster than thin ones Fillet welds cool faster than butt welds Preheating reduces cooling rate

The iron-carbon phase diagram

Iron-carbon diagram
Steels (< 2% C) and cast irons Low-C, medium-C and high-C steels Cooling of 0.8% C and 0.2% C steels from liquid state to room temperature Structural constituents at room temperature, lever rule Effect of increasing carbon content Significance of equilibrium

Lamellar structure of pearlite

Ferrite-pearlite microsturcture of medium-C steel

Low carbon steel (ferrite and pearlite)

Ferrite in nearly pure iron

Constitution of hypo-eutectoid steels

%C

Ferrite:Pearlite

Ferrite: Cementite

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

75:25 50:50 25:75 0:100

97:3 94:6 91:9 88:12

Effects of rapid cooling


The eutectoid reaction : + Fe3C
Change in crystal structure and composition, necessity for atom motion diffusion, time requirement, slow cooling Rapid cooling: Lowering of transformation temperatures Decrease of pearlite interlamellar spacing ( in H, strength) Occurrence of other transformation types Austenite to bainite transformation Austenite to martensite transformation, Ms and Mf temperatures

Austenite

Cooling rate (CR) increases

Temperature

Coarse Pearlite
Martensite ( single phase)

Bainite

Fine Pearlite

Mixtures of ferrite and iron carbide

Time Hardness and strength progressively increase as CR increases Transformations in steel as a function of cooling rate

Properties of martensite
No composition change during martensitic transformation, thus supersaturated with carbon, high hardness and brittleness
Increasing carbon Increasing hardness and brittleness

Increasing alloy content only marginal effect on properties

TTT and CCT diagrams


TTT and CCT diagrams vary with steel composition Alloying elements (and carbon) slow down pearlitic and bainitic reactions, shift CCT diagram to the right, reduce critical cooling rate, martensite forms even on slower cooling, more martensite forms under given cooling rate

Most alloying elements lower Ms & Mf temps


Concept of hardenability, industrial significance

Isothermal transformation diagram for eutectoid steel

CCT diagram for eutectoid steel

CCT diagram and RT microstructures in eutectoid steel

CCT diagram and RT microstructures in medium-C low-alloy steel (4340)

Tempering of martensite
Need to temper Changes in structure and properties Selection of tempering temperature and time Quenched and tempered steels, also normalized and tempered steels

Hardness of plain-carbon steel in various microstructural conditions

Problem of cold cracking


Cracking due to welding stresses acting on brittle microstructure, e.g., martensite Contributing factors Residual stress (tensile!) Martensite Hydrogen

Terminology : Cold, underbead, hydrogeninduced, or delayed cracking

Underbead crack in low-alloy steel weldment

Microstructures across the weld


Impose weld thermal cycle (i.e., cooling curve) on CCT diagram Thus different microstructures under different welding conditions Possibility of undesirable microstructures, especially martensite Danger of cracking due to martensite

Tendency to martensite formation


Depends on intersection of weld cooling curve with CCT diagram of the steel More the martensite formed, greater the danger of cracking To modify microstructure, shift intersection Change composition (Lower the %C, alloy content) Reduce cooling rate (Preheat, heat input control) l Weld metal : Both options HAZ : Only cooling rate option

Carbon Equivalent
Tendency of a HAZ to develop a hard microstructure (with a particular hardness) under a particular cooling regime can be related to a single compositional parameter carbon equivalent CE(IIW) = C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15 CE(IIW) < 0.42 easy to weld w/o cracking CE(IIW) > 0.5 difficult to weld w/o cracking

Need to recognise composition limits for valid application of CE formula


Compare : Steel A (%) C 0.15 Mn 0.60 Cr 2.25, Mo 1.0, V 0.25 CE (IIW) 0.95 Steel B (%) 0.45 0.60 Unalloyed 0.55

Compare also low-C, high-Mn steel with higher-C, lower-Mn steel

Carbon Equivalent
Several other CE formulae also proposed: CE(AWS): C + Mn/6 + Cr/5 + Mo/4 + Ni/15 + Cu/13 [Notice close similarity to CE(IIW)] Ito and Bessyo (Japan): Pcm = C + Si/30 + (Mn+Cu+Cr)/20 + Ni/60 + Mo/15 + V/10 + 5 B (Note importance of B)
Dren: CEq = C + Si/25 + (Mn+ Cu)/16 + Ni/40 + Cr/10 + Mo/15 + V/10 Note greater emphasis on C itself The latter two especially useful for low-C steels (many modern steels, e.g., pipeline steels), for which CE (IIW) is not entirely suitable

Carbon Equivalent
CE (IIW) - developed in the late 1960s and based on work from 1940 originally hardenability formula, now used as hydrogen cracking formula
(Si ignored in formula, but affects hardenability same way as Mn, but Si does not increase cracking tendency, unlike Mn) (CE(IIW) cannot be used to find HAZ hardness of single-pass weld containing Si!)

Carbon Equivalent
Empirical formulae relating CE(IIW) to hardness and yield strength

Applicability of CE to be modified by 1) Inclusion content (Stray instances, e.g., low-S steel showed HIC, but not similar steel with high S sulphide inclusions nucleate ferrite at higher temperature more crack-resistant than lower-temperature products)
2) Segregation, especially in concast plates higher %C and alloying elements at centreline, greater cracking tendency there 3) High scrap casts can have higher alloy content

General Strategies to avoid HIC


Direct control of hydrogen level Control of microstructure by controlling cooling rate Temperature control Microstructure control through isothermal transformation Use of austenitic steel or Ni base consumables

Direct control of hydrogen level

Use of low hydogen consumables Necessity for using basic fluxes ! Merit of gas shielded welding
SMAW electrodes, SAW fluxes to be carefully stored (warm storing) and baked up to 4500C

Direct control of hyd. level (contd.)


Very low hyd. electrodes : Danger in hot, humid climates, hyperbaric chambers Cored wire brands : Moisture pick up if reels kept on machines unprotected for long (in humid conditions) Parent steel cleanliness : Rust, oil, grease, paint, even innate hydrogen

Further lowering of hydrogen levels Development of higher-strength steels


reduced tolerance for hydrogen Enables reduction of preheat / interpass / postheat temperature controls

Thus incentive for lowering benchmark hydrogen level 3 mL / 100 g weld metal in SMAW 2 mL / 100 g weld metal in FCAW
Several recent developments

Hydrogen reduction strategies Modifications in arc chemistry


1) Increasing slag basicity (B)

B = CaO + MgO + BaO + K2O + Li2O + CaF2 + 0.5(MnO+FeO)


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SiO2 + 0.5 (Al2O3 + TiO2 + ZrO2) As B , weld metal oxygen level , also hydrogen level (E.g., As B from 0 to 3, HD from 12 to 2 mL / 100 g) Reason : Complex interaction based on water vapour solubility or hydroxyl capacity of the slag Higher basicity higher hydroxyl capacity Lower HD level

Also, dissociation of CaCO3 contributes additionally to reduction of HD ( CaCO3 CaO + CO2, 2 CO2 2CO + O2 This in oxygen level in arc atmosphere suppresses the moisture decomposition reaction H2O 2H + O ) Excess CaCO3 counter-productive, for complex reasons Note also any such excess can adversely affect, e.g., in SMAW, operational characteristics like arc stability, arc forces, weld pool viscosity, weld bead shape, etc. Hence optimal level of additions necessary

2) Addition of fluorides to flux

a) Fluorine-containing compounds hydrogen content in weld metal : F2 + H2 2 HF HF insoluble in liquid iron (weld metal), so escapes into the atmosphere, Thus, hydrogen availability reduced Fluorine provided by adding fluorides, e.g., fluorspar (CaF2)
b) Also, if silica is present, CaF2 reacts with SiO2 to form SiF4 : 2 CaF2 + SiO2 SiF4 (g) + 2 CaO SiF4 provides shielding and hydrogen partial pressure

c)

Addition of CaF2 also slag basicity and hydrogen level

CaF2 decomposes poorly in the arc, hence other fluorides also tried : NaF, KF, K2SiF6, Na3AlF6, K2TiF6 , etc. These dissociate more easily, so are more effective than CaF2 in reducing hydrogen level
Proportion of additions to be optimized : Too high an amount HD again Excess CaF2 decreases arc stability Excess K2SiF6 and K2TiF6 slag basicity Other more complex factors

3) Concept and use of hydrogen traps Hydrogen as solute in lattice and also segregated in crystal defects and second-phase particles Mean residence time longer in these particles than as solute hydrogen trapping Specific rare earth and transition metal additions compounds such as Ce2O3, TiC, Y2O3, etc. with high binding energy (i.e., high affinity) for hydrogen Addition of 1600 ppm (0.16 %) Y HD reduces to 1-2 mL/100g

Retained austenite (RA) as hydrogen trap


High solubility, but low diffusivity for hydrogen in austenite exact opposite in surrounding ferrite, bainite or martensite thus trapping effect experimentally demonstrated Caution: RA could transform to martensite on drop in service temperature, high HD in martensite Embrittlement

Tailor RA content to % H pick-up & service conditions (especially temperature)

Recent example: (Weld.J.: June 2007, 170-s-178-s)


Possibility of HIC in weld cladding Fe-Cr-Al clads for high-temp. corrosion service (sulphur and oxygen-rich environments) 8-10% Al and up to 5% Cr common However, brittle FeAl and Fe3Al intermetallics susceptible to hyd. embrittlement & cracking (Ductility of these alloys ~12% in high-vacuum or pure oxygen, but 2-4% if water vapour present) During welding, 2Al + 3H2O (from arc) Al2O3 + 6H H + residual stress from welding cracking in cladding

Cracks in Fe-Al cladding starting in weld spread through FZ, but stop at the base metal thus direct path for environment to attack substrate steel, protection totally ineffective Addition of Cr to Fe-Al composition beneficial - ductility of clads increases - corrosion resistance also improves - hydrogen cracking susceptibilty decreases [attributed to hydrogen trapping by (Fe,Cr)xCy and (Fe,Al)3C type carbides]

Oxide inclusions more effective trapping sites than dislocations, carbides more effective than oxides In low-alloy Cr-Mo & Cr-Mo-V steels, M23C6 and M7C3 & V-carbides shown to be useful trapping sites In other steels, Al2O3 also found effective Thus, Fe-Cr and Fe-Al carbides useful in the cladding consumable

Control of microstructure
Regulate cooling conditions to ensure that HAZ is not too hard Maintain high heat input Use preheat Use post-heating (different from final PWHT)

Control of microstructure (contd.)


Heat input : Arc energy (per unit length of weld) = Voltage x Amperage x 60 w.speed (mm/min.)

Multiarc welding (single pool) : Add individual arc energies AC welding : Use RMS values
Heat input (arc efficiency factored) and arc energy

Preheat and interpass temperatures


Preheat up to 2500C to avoid HIC Max. interpass temperature (e.g., up to 3000C) to control weldment properties Preheating reduces cooling rate, M formation Note: Effect greater at lower temperatures C-Mn steel: + P at higher temperature, not much affected by preheat, but hyd. diffusion (lower temperature) affected Low-alloy steel: B or M at lower temperature, so HAZ microstructure and hyd. diffusion much influenced by preheat

Measure the temp. parameters close to weld line immediately before depositing a weld pass If preheat from one side only, e.g., by gas flame, measure preheat temperature from opposite side; Otherwise, remove flame and measure temperature immediately (waiting time of I min / 25 mm thickness recommended

Other benefits of preheating :


Time to cool from Ms to Mf is increased, so martensitic reaction (even if it occurs) is less abrupt Residual stress magnitude is reduced (however, significant only if high preheat temperatures are used) Development of stresses also becomes slower (as temperature drops more slowly) Escape of hydrogen faster (steel remains in high-temp. range much longer), so final hydrogen content much less Thus, even if martensite forms, risk of HIC less, since at the time it forms, both stress and H level are lower

Welding diagrams (nomograms)


Example : TWI nomograms for C-Mn steels with CE from 0.32 up to 0.58 and different hydrogen levels Steps: 1) Select CE axis or scale based on H level > 15 ml/100 g (e.g., SMAW with non-basic coverings) : A; 10-15 ml/100 g : B; 5-10 ml/100 g : C; < 5 ml/100 g : D (e.g., SMAW with baked low-H electrodes) 2) Select nomogram for the CE of the steel welded and the expected hydrogen level of the process 3) For the combined thickness of base metal and heat input used, read off preheat required Note: Different combinations of preheat and heat input possible

Temperature control method


Mainly for a) steels of higher hardenability and b) for C and C-Mn steels in very thick sections preheat alone not adequate to reduce hardening, additionally postheating at 150-2000C (interrupting cooling for given period before allowing it to continue) required for releasing hydrogen (at these temperatures, H will diffuse rapidly out of the steel and weldment will not crack) For steel type and %C, determine HAZ hardness from lower part and use it to estimate minimum preheat, interpass and post-heat temperatutres

Benefits of postheating :
Hydrogen content drops during postheating much faster and reaches a low level if temp. is well chosen Residual stresses do not rise during postheating ; also, as cooling is resumed after postheating, rise again more slowly (since temp. is equalized) Thus, at the time stresses rise to their max. value, hydrogen level has dropped considerably, so risk of cold cracking greatly reduced Adequately high postheat temp. and time permits reduction in preheat temperature No structural change during postheating

Temperature control ..(contd.)


Difficulty with steels of low weldability : Build-up of hydrogen in multipass welds (especially in short welds) Remedy : Minimize hydrogen input + allow interpass time (Interpass time required can be estimated from hydrogen diffusion data relevant to the interpass temperature)

Selection of postheat temperature Postheat temperature should be < temperature for softening (tempering) and also below Mf If postheat temp. > Mf , retained austenite holds the hydrogen and releases it on cooling and transformation to cause cracking (even if taken to PWHT temperature without intermediate cooling, danger that RA will not transform fully during PWHT) If Mf is too low (i.e.,< desired preheat level), weld at the desired preheat level with scrupulous hydrogen control, reduce temperature very slowly after welding so that hydrogen released from the transforming RA has enough time to escape

Nomograms established by TWI are available for different welding situations Expected HAZ hardness obtainable based on steel type and carbon content For this hardness, minimum preheat, interpass and post-heat temperatures can be read off, depending on restraint and hydrogen levels

Temper beads
To deal with a hard HAZ, if joint not given PWHT problems of poor toughness and SC resistance Deposit temper bead at controlled distance from weld toe :
Tempers hard HAZ on parent steel of final weld run Leaves its own HAZ in less hardenable weld metal

Grind off temper bead later, if necessary Caution : Location of temper bead to be precise

Isothermal transformation
Also for steels tending to form very hard HAZs Carry out welding operation at a high temperature, say 3600C, hold at that temperature long enough to transform to bainite Use CCT diagram for the parent steel, but use holding time twice as long to allow for coarsergrained HAZ Longer time and higher temp. Hydrogen diffuses out to safer levels

Austenitic or nickel alloy consumables


Used when preheat levels necessary for other methods are too high damaging to the steel or the welder Up to 0.2 - 0.3 % C, no preheat required Higher % C, 1500 C adequate Preheat level = f (% C, restraint, hardenability, hydrogen level)

Principle :
1. ASS and Ni-base alloys dissolve appreciable amounts of hydrogen in the solid state 2. ASS and Ni-base alloys not susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement

3. Some hydrogen may diffuse during welding into the HAZ while the latter is austenitic, but will migrate back into the weld metal as the HAZ transforms

Difficulties :
1. Ni alloys (also ASS, to a smaller extent) prone to solidification cracking, especially if S is picked up from the HAZ 2. ASS filler Hard martensite near fusion boundary (weld metal due to incomplete mixing & BMHAZ) cracking 3. ASS filler material Difference in CTE 4. HAZ still very hard 5. Difficulty of NDE, because of difference in crystal structures, only visual, DPI possible

Weld metal hydrogen cracking


Possible in mild steel, C-Mn and low-alloy steels Same controlling factors as in HAZ (Hydrogen level, strain/restraint, microstructure)

Mild steel and C-Mn steel : High restraint, high hydrogen level, or both Low-alloy (say Cr-Mo) steels : Lower levels of restraint and hydrogen content sufficient to cause FZ cracking, hence greater care needed

Morphology of cracking
Longitudinal or transverse to weld axis Longitudinal crack often initiated at root or toe of a pass in a multipass weld or at a position where welding is interrupted and interpass temp. drops Transverse cracking either normal to weld surface or inclined at ~ 450 to it latter often called chevron crack (also 450 or staircase crack)

Chevron cracking
Observed in SMA and SA welds
Earlier sometimes believed to be nucleated by hot cracks or other types, but now established that chevron cracks are indeed hydrogen cracks and hence avoidable by usual means However, solidification and hyd.cracks may exist in same weld
Chevron cracks in heavy C-Mn steel sub-arc welds : High heat input large bead sizes long diffusion paths Compensates for reduction in cooling rate Best to use very low hydrogen levels

FZ hydrogen cracks often with zig-zag path Often transgranular in C-Mn steels, but increasingly intergranular in Cr-Mo steels
Fracture surfaces vary depending on microstructure, applied strain & hydrogen level Often quasi-cleavage type, but occasionally also microvoid coalescence typical are also features not fitting generally recognised description

Formation of fisheyes
Instance of hydrogen-induced cracking in weld metal

Small white spots on as-welded tensile fracture faces Fisheye surrounds discontinuity like gas pocket or void associated with non-metallic inclusion (pupil)
Hyd. migrates to the voids triaxial stress, embrittlement During necking in tensile test, more hyd. diffuses to voids, these localized regions fracture in brittle manner, however no time for the usual interrupted cracking Remainder of FZ section fractures with ductility

Fisheyes not normally seen, because All-weld tensile tests usually done after heat treating for hydrogen removal Cross-weld tensile tests Failure commonly in base metal (overmatched weld metal) Impact testing : Even fisheyes cannot appear (Diffusion of hydrogen during test not possible)

When does weld metal hyd. cracking occur?


1) High levels of restraint & high H levels
Example: At ordinary restraint (say, 2400 N/mm.mm) HAZ and FZ cracking avoided for arc energies > 2.0 kJ/mm,
but at higher restraint (6300 N/mm/mm) HAZ cracking avoided at energy > 2.5 kJ/mm, but not weld metal HIC (higher arc heat angular distortion & hence root strain) (FZ requires allowable hardness levels lower than in HAZ)

Use of lower hydrogen content consumables


often mitigates the problem in such cases

2) Welding C-Mn steels of low CE


Lower preheat or even no preheat needed for avoiding HAZ hydrogen cracking no comparable change in weld (filler) metal composition used Example: Low-C, lean-alloyed steels of low CE (such as HSLA steels) often weld metal with higher CE required to achieve strength Preheat may thus be required for avoiding FZ HIC (full economic potential of low-CE not realised!)

3) Using Cr Mo steel weld metals


Susceptibility to cracking already high (high CE) (High degree of alloying required in the weld metal for strength, resistance to creep, high-temperature oxidation or hydrogen attack)
Also increased tendency to undergo intergranular rupture (at least partially)

Recent example: (Welding J., Nov.2006, 28-30)


Thick sections (35-40 mm) of carbon steel (ASTM A36), field welding, heavy restraint Base metal carbon content ~0.25%, Mn ~1.0%, Si ~0.3% FCAW used for welding, 75% Ar / 25% CO2 shielding Deposited weld metal : C~ 0.07%, Mn ~1.5%, Si ~0.7% Boron also present : ~ 0.005% Note the B addition & in %Mn, %Si to balance in %C Weld metal cracks noticed when B level rose to > 0.006%, and when 100% Ar was used for shielding 100% Ar higher levels of Mn (1.85%) & Si (1.0%), high hardness (even >350 HV), HAC

Another example: Weld. J., Apr. 2002, 61-s 67-s


Weathering (high-performance) steels :Cor-ten, A 485W Low-C, low CE (Pcm=0.256) Bainitic structure in HAZ, 300-350 HV max., no preheat required for thickness < 50 mm and HD < 4 mL/100g However, weld metal likely to be more hardenable (lower-C, balanced by suitable alloy additions to strength), preheat required to avoid FZ HIC

Gapped bead-on-plate (G-BOP) test two plates clamped together with a 5-10 mm gap machined in one of the blocks, bead deposited over the gap, high stresses at root, delayed FZ root cracking, measure min. preheat required to avoid cracking Min. preheat levels required to avoid weld metal HIC vary for different processes (SAW: ~500C, GMAW: ~500C, FCAW & SMAW: ~1000C) SMAW: Harder weld metal, higher % martensite, also penetration stress concentration at root

Precautions necessary :
Similar to measures for avoiding HAZ HIC, but few rational predictive formulae available, e.g., Preheat temp. required to avoid weld metal microcracking = T0(0C) = 120 + 120 log (HD/3.5) + 5.0 (h-20) + 8 ( B 83), where HD = Diffusible hyd. content of weld metal (0.1 to 40 mL/100 g), h = weld metal thickness (15 to 40 mm) and B = UTS of weld metal (600 to 900 MPa)

If clear formulation not available, adopt scrupulous precautions to lower hyd. input : Baking at highest temp. allowed by manufacturer Warm storage , say at 1500C SAW and GMAW wire (leaving weld nozzle) to be clean, rust-free no pick-up en route Allowing adequate interpass time for H to escape (especially during repair procedures) Maintaining preheat temp. for some period after welding - to reduce differential contraction

Mechanism/s of hydrogen cracking


Hydrogen absorbed by liquid weld metal : 30 mL/100g (if available!) As temp. and solubility drop, some hyd. comes out of solution Escape as gas bubbles or entrapped as pores However, rapid cooling in welding Excess hydrogen retained in solution (supersaturation) Solute hydrogen is in atomic state, can diffuse quickly From the FZ, hyd. diffuses a) out of the steel b) into the HAZ (when hot!) c) into discontinuities (2HH2) Thus, at RT, both FZ & HAZ supersaturated with hydrogen

Solubility of hydrogen in steel

Excess

RT Temperature

MP

Weld metal temp.

Hydrogen absorption by weld metal

Hydrogen in cavities / gas pockets enormous pressure

(2HH2, equilibrium const. K = (pH2 / aH2), Sieverts law)


11 mL/100g of dissolved hyd. ~ 1450 MPa pressure! Hydrostatic, hence triaxial But hyd. in cavities in molecular form, cannot diffuse easily Hydrogen supersaturated in FZ & HAZ in atomic state, can diffuse rapidly, hence diffusible hydrogen Both forms cause problems, but diffusible hydrogen of much greater importance

Factors affecting hydrogen embrittlement


Strength of the steel (YS primary criterion limits local peak stress build-up) Microstructure: Order of embrittlement : Ferrite-pearlite, bainite, bainite-martensite, martensite, twinned martensite) (Martensite plates high short-range stresses) Temperature of embrittlement : +200 to -1000C

Strain rate : Time necessary for hydrogen to diffuse prior to fracture by other means (Not impact, not tension, but only stress rupture test) Section size Thicker plates: Higher shrinkage stresses, also triaxial (Compressive stresses due to martensite formation only microscopic, so average out) Lower surface-to-mass ratio Longer diffusion distances for H escape (baking time proportional to D2 and t2 ) Coarser grain size (generally)

Features of hydrogen cracking


Constant-load stress rupture test

Above upper limit stress, fracture without delay (not due to H) Below lower limit stress, no damage due to hydrogen
Between these limits, brittle fracture due to hydrogen Time to rupture tR shorter for higher applied stress ( Static fatigue limit ) Incubation time before hydrogen cracking starts, followed by intermittent crack growth in several steps, final catastrophic fracture by overload (section size )

Upper critical stress

Const. H level Const. temp.

Applied stress

Incubation time

Time to fracture

Lower limit stress

Time to fracture (log), h Constant load rupture test

ti = Incubation time
Compliance or crack opening

ti

Time
Intermittent crack growth

Theories of hydrogen embrittlement


Pressure theory (due to Zapffe and Tetelman) Hydrogen in supersaturated lattice escapes into tiny voids (gas pockets, sub-microscopic rifts, grain boundary imperfections, voids associated with non-metallic inclusions) Once inside cavity, atomic hydrogen changes to molecular form, builds up enormous pressure Triaxial state of stress a) adds to applied stress b) increases crack susceptibility

Sorption theory (due to Petch) Hydrogen adsorbed on surface of internal lattice imperfections and microcracks, adsorption reduces surface energy, facilitates crack propagation (Griffith criterion)

Lattice embrittlement theory (due to Troiano)

Hydrogen in lattice (solute) is the damaging specie, reduces cohesive strength of the base metal bond
Embrittlement in 3 stages : 1) Incubation period hydrogen migrates to high-stress regions (e.g., stress raisers), accumulates to reach a critical level when a crack is nucleated ( triaxiality YS, hydrogen cohesive strength)

2) Initial crack propagates some time, but soon stops as its tip reaches sound metal not yet damaged by hydrogen crack growth arrested However, within a short time, more hydrogen diffuses to fresh crack tip (stress raiser), reduces strength, etc., crack propagation is resumed, cycle repeated intermittent crack growth (incubation periods followed by rapid crack extensions) (crack growth rate just faster than hydrogen diffusion rate!)
3) Crack advances so much that remaining section too weak to sustain applied load catastrophic, ductile fracture

Comparison between the theories :


Baking removes hydrogen embrittlement If embrittlement is due to molecular hydrogen, it has first to dissociate into atomic hydrogen before it can diffuse to the surface and escape. Temperatures found to be effective for removing hydrogen are too low for such dissociation Tensile testing at liquid nitrogen temperatures (-1960C) (no diffusion) very low %RA in hyd.-embrittled samples Void pressure too low to cause embrittlement Residual hydrogen in lattice can still embrittle at -1960C

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