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Welding of Steels
not stationary, moves at constant speed along a straight line Power output constant with time
Consequence: Fused zone and heat-affected zone(s) of constant width Quasi-stationary heat source
x = coordinate in welding direction, mm y = coordinate transverse to weld, mm z = coordinate normal to weldment surface, mm T = the temperature in the weldment, C k(T) = thermal conductivity of the metal,J/mm-s-0C p = density of the metal, g/mm3 C = specific heat of the metal, J/g' C Q = rate of internal heat generation, W/mm3
Heat flow in a work piece of sufficient length is steady or quasistationary, w.r.t the moving heat source except for the initial and final transients of welding i.e the temperature distribution and the pool geometry do not change with time for an observer moving with the heat source
To calculate the temperature T(x, y) at any location in the workpiece (x, y) with respect to the moving heat source
This eq. implies that on the transverse cross section of the weld all isotherms, including the fusion boundary and the outer boundary of the heat-affected zone, are semicircular in shape
By converting distance x into time t through t = (x - 0)/V one can get the Temp.-Time curve i.e THERMAL CYCLE
Calculated results from Rosenthal's three-dimensional heat flow equation..
Thermal cycles
Isotherms
COOLING RATES
R the cooling rate at the weld center line, C/s k thermal conductivity of the metal, J/mms- C To = the initial plate temperature Tc the temperature at which the cooling rate is calculated, C
h = thickness of the base metal, mm = density of base metal, g/mm3 C = specific heat of base metal, J/g C C = volumetric specific heat, 0.0044 j/mm3-C for steels
Process
SMAW GMAW Cored wire GTAW (dcen) (ac) SAW EBW Laser W
Three-dimensional (thick plates, requiring 6 or more passes) : Cooling rate CR = 2k (Tc T0)2 H , where k = Thermal conductivity T0 = Initial plate temperature Tc = Temp. at which CR is calculated H = Arc energy Note: Underwater welding Wet: very rapid cooling Dry, hyperbaric welding: Also high CR (conductivity of compressed atmosphere)
Two-dimensional (thin plates, requiring fewer than 4 passes) : Cooling rate CR = 2kC (h/H)2 (Tc T0)3 , where h = Base metal thickness (Combined thickness) = Density of base metal C = Specific heat of base metal Note: CR as section thickness , at constant heat input
Single and two-pass welds : Heat input proportional to h, so effectively CR is independent of thickness (approx.)
Number of heat flow paths also to be considered 3 for fillet welds and 2 for butt welds
Combined thickness = Total thickness of those paths providing the heat flow paths Varying thickness : Averaged for a distance of 75 mm from weld line Current practice : Cooling time between two temperatures Common : t 8-5 (between 800 and 5000C range of transformation in most C- and C-Mn steels) t 3-1 (Time for H to diffuse out of weld area)
Faster heating
Faster cooling
Thick sections cool faster than thin ones Fillet welds cool faster than butt welds Preheating reduces cooling rate
Iron-carbon diagram
Steels (< 2% C) and cast irons Low-C, medium-C and high-C steels Cooling of 0.8% C and 0.2% C steels from liquid state to room temperature Structural constituents at room temperature, lever rule Effect of increasing carbon content Significance of equilibrium
%C
Ferrite:Pearlite
Ferrite: Cementite
Austenite
Temperature
Coarse Pearlite
Martensite ( single phase)
Bainite
Fine Pearlite
Time Hardness and strength progressively increase as CR increases Transformations in steel as a function of cooling rate
Properties of martensite
No composition change during martensitic transformation, thus supersaturated with carbon, high hardness and brittleness
Increasing carbon Increasing hardness and brittleness
Tempering of martensite
Need to temper Changes in structure and properties Selection of tempering temperature and time Quenched and tempered steels, also normalized and tempered steels
Carbon Equivalent
Tendency of a HAZ to develop a hard microstructure (with a particular hardness) under a particular cooling regime can be related to a single compositional parameter carbon equivalent CE(IIW) = C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15 CE(IIW) < 0.42 easy to weld w/o cracking CE(IIW) > 0.5 difficult to weld w/o cracking
Carbon Equivalent
Several other CE formulae also proposed: CE(AWS): C + Mn/6 + Cr/5 + Mo/4 + Ni/15 + Cu/13 [Notice close similarity to CE(IIW)] Ito and Bessyo (Japan): Pcm = C + Si/30 + (Mn+Cu+Cr)/20 + Ni/60 + Mo/15 + V/10 + 5 B (Note importance of B)
Dren: CEq = C + Si/25 + (Mn+ Cu)/16 + Ni/40 + Cr/10 + Mo/15 + V/10 Note greater emphasis on C itself The latter two especially useful for low-C steels (many modern steels, e.g., pipeline steels), for which CE (IIW) is not entirely suitable
Carbon Equivalent
CE (IIW) - developed in the late 1960s and based on work from 1940 originally hardenability formula, now used as hydrogen cracking formula
(Si ignored in formula, but affects hardenability same way as Mn, but Si does not increase cracking tendency, unlike Mn) (CE(IIW) cannot be used to find HAZ hardness of single-pass weld containing Si!)
Carbon Equivalent
Empirical formulae relating CE(IIW) to hardness and yield strength
Applicability of CE to be modified by 1) Inclusion content (Stray instances, e.g., low-S steel showed HIC, but not similar steel with high S sulphide inclusions nucleate ferrite at higher temperature more crack-resistant than lower-temperature products)
2) Segregation, especially in concast plates higher %C and alloying elements at centreline, greater cracking tendency there 3) High scrap casts can have higher alloy content
Use of low hydogen consumables Necessity for using basic fluxes ! Merit of gas shielded welding
SMAW electrodes, SAW fluxes to be carefully stored (warm storing) and baked up to 4500C
Thus incentive for lowering benchmark hydrogen level 3 mL / 100 g weld metal in SMAW 2 mL / 100 g weld metal in FCAW
Several recent developments
SiO2 + 0.5 (Al2O3 + TiO2 + ZrO2) As B , weld metal oxygen level , also hydrogen level (E.g., As B from 0 to 3, HD from 12 to 2 mL / 100 g) Reason : Complex interaction based on water vapour solubility or hydroxyl capacity of the slag Higher basicity higher hydroxyl capacity Lower HD level
Also, dissociation of CaCO3 contributes additionally to reduction of HD ( CaCO3 CaO + CO2, 2 CO2 2CO + O2 This in oxygen level in arc atmosphere suppresses the moisture decomposition reaction H2O 2H + O ) Excess CaCO3 counter-productive, for complex reasons Note also any such excess can adversely affect, e.g., in SMAW, operational characteristics like arc stability, arc forces, weld pool viscosity, weld bead shape, etc. Hence optimal level of additions necessary
a) Fluorine-containing compounds hydrogen content in weld metal : F2 + H2 2 HF HF insoluble in liquid iron (weld metal), so escapes into the atmosphere, Thus, hydrogen availability reduced Fluorine provided by adding fluorides, e.g., fluorspar (CaF2)
b) Also, if silica is present, CaF2 reacts with SiO2 to form SiF4 : 2 CaF2 + SiO2 SiF4 (g) + 2 CaO SiF4 provides shielding and hydrogen partial pressure
c)
CaF2 decomposes poorly in the arc, hence other fluorides also tried : NaF, KF, K2SiF6, Na3AlF6, K2TiF6 , etc. These dissociate more easily, so are more effective than CaF2 in reducing hydrogen level
Proportion of additions to be optimized : Too high an amount HD again Excess CaF2 decreases arc stability Excess K2SiF6 and K2TiF6 slag basicity Other more complex factors
3) Concept and use of hydrogen traps Hydrogen as solute in lattice and also segregated in crystal defects and second-phase particles Mean residence time longer in these particles than as solute hydrogen trapping Specific rare earth and transition metal additions compounds such as Ce2O3, TiC, Y2O3, etc. with high binding energy (i.e., high affinity) for hydrogen Addition of 1600 ppm (0.16 %) Y HD reduces to 1-2 mL/100g
Cracks in Fe-Al cladding starting in weld spread through FZ, but stop at the base metal thus direct path for environment to attack substrate steel, protection totally ineffective Addition of Cr to Fe-Al composition beneficial - ductility of clads increases - corrosion resistance also improves - hydrogen cracking susceptibilty decreases [attributed to hydrogen trapping by (Fe,Cr)xCy and (Fe,Al)3C type carbides]
Oxide inclusions more effective trapping sites than dislocations, carbides more effective than oxides In low-alloy Cr-Mo & Cr-Mo-V steels, M23C6 and M7C3 & V-carbides shown to be useful trapping sites In other steels, Al2O3 also found effective Thus, Fe-Cr and Fe-Al carbides useful in the cladding consumable
Control of microstructure
Regulate cooling conditions to ensure that HAZ is not too hard Maintain high heat input Use preheat Use post-heating (different from final PWHT)
Multiarc welding (single pool) : Add individual arc energies AC welding : Use RMS values
Heat input (arc efficiency factored) and arc energy
Measure the temp. parameters close to weld line immediately before depositing a weld pass If preheat from one side only, e.g., by gas flame, measure preheat temperature from opposite side; Otherwise, remove flame and measure temperature immediately (waiting time of I min / 25 mm thickness recommended
Benefits of postheating :
Hydrogen content drops during postheating much faster and reaches a low level if temp. is well chosen Residual stresses do not rise during postheating ; also, as cooling is resumed after postheating, rise again more slowly (since temp. is equalized) Thus, at the time stresses rise to their max. value, hydrogen level has dropped considerably, so risk of cold cracking greatly reduced Adequately high postheat temp. and time permits reduction in preheat temperature No structural change during postheating
Selection of postheat temperature Postheat temperature should be < temperature for softening (tempering) and also below Mf If postheat temp. > Mf , retained austenite holds the hydrogen and releases it on cooling and transformation to cause cracking (even if taken to PWHT temperature without intermediate cooling, danger that RA will not transform fully during PWHT) If Mf is too low (i.e.,< desired preheat level), weld at the desired preheat level with scrupulous hydrogen control, reduce temperature very slowly after welding so that hydrogen released from the transforming RA has enough time to escape
Nomograms established by TWI are available for different welding situations Expected HAZ hardness obtainable based on steel type and carbon content For this hardness, minimum preheat, interpass and post-heat temperatures can be read off, depending on restraint and hydrogen levels
Temper beads
To deal with a hard HAZ, if joint not given PWHT problems of poor toughness and SC resistance Deposit temper bead at controlled distance from weld toe :
Tempers hard HAZ on parent steel of final weld run Leaves its own HAZ in less hardenable weld metal
Grind off temper bead later, if necessary Caution : Location of temper bead to be precise
Isothermal transformation
Also for steels tending to form very hard HAZs Carry out welding operation at a high temperature, say 3600C, hold at that temperature long enough to transform to bainite Use CCT diagram for the parent steel, but use holding time twice as long to allow for coarsergrained HAZ Longer time and higher temp. Hydrogen diffuses out to safer levels
Principle :
1. ASS and Ni-base alloys dissolve appreciable amounts of hydrogen in the solid state 2. ASS and Ni-base alloys not susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement
3. Some hydrogen may diffuse during welding into the HAZ while the latter is austenitic, but will migrate back into the weld metal as the HAZ transforms
Difficulties :
1. Ni alloys (also ASS, to a smaller extent) prone to solidification cracking, especially if S is picked up from the HAZ 2. ASS filler Hard martensite near fusion boundary (weld metal due to incomplete mixing & BMHAZ) cracking 3. ASS filler material Difference in CTE 4. HAZ still very hard 5. Difficulty of NDE, because of difference in crystal structures, only visual, DPI possible
Mild steel and C-Mn steel : High restraint, high hydrogen level, or both Low-alloy (say Cr-Mo) steels : Lower levels of restraint and hydrogen content sufficient to cause FZ cracking, hence greater care needed
Morphology of cracking
Longitudinal or transverse to weld axis Longitudinal crack often initiated at root or toe of a pass in a multipass weld or at a position where welding is interrupted and interpass temp. drops Transverse cracking either normal to weld surface or inclined at ~ 450 to it latter often called chevron crack (also 450 or staircase crack)
Chevron cracking
Observed in SMA and SA welds
Earlier sometimes believed to be nucleated by hot cracks or other types, but now established that chevron cracks are indeed hydrogen cracks and hence avoidable by usual means However, solidification and hyd.cracks may exist in same weld
Chevron cracks in heavy C-Mn steel sub-arc welds : High heat input large bead sizes long diffusion paths Compensates for reduction in cooling rate Best to use very low hydrogen levels
FZ hydrogen cracks often with zig-zag path Often transgranular in C-Mn steels, but increasingly intergranular in Cr-Mo steels
Fracture surfaces vary depending on microstructure, applied strain & hydrogen level Often quasi-cleavage type, but occasionally also microvoid coalescence typical are also features not fitting generally recognised description
Formation of fisheyes
Instance of hydrogen-induced cracking in weld metal
Small white spots on as-welded tensile fracture faces Fisheye surrounds discontinuity like gas pocket or void associated with non-metallic inclusion (pupil)
Hyd. migrates to the voids triaxial stress, embrittlement During necking in tensile test, more hyd. diffuses to voids, these localized regions fracture in brittle manner, however no time for the usual interrupted cracking Remainder of FZ section fractures with ductility
Fisheyes not normally seen, because All-weld tensile tests usually done after heat treating for hydrogen removal Cross-weld tensile tests Failure commonly in base metal (overmatched weld metal) Impact testing : Even fisheyes cannot appear (Diffusion of hydrogen during test not possible)
Gapped bead-on-plate (G-BOP) test two plates clamped together with a 5-10 mm gap machined in one of the blocks, bead deposited over the gap, high stresses at root, delayed FZ root cracking, measure min. preheat required to avoid cracking Min. preheat levels required to avoid weld metal HIC vary for different processes (SAW: ~500C, GMAW: ~500C, FCAW & SMAW: ~1000C) SMAW: Harder weld metal, higher % martensite, also penetration stress concentration at root
Precautions necessary :
Similar to measures for avoiding HAZ HIC, but few rational predictive formulae available, e.g., Preheat temp. required to avoid weld metal microcracking = T0(0C) = 120 + 120 log (HD/3.5) + 5.0 (h-20) + 8 ( B 83), where HD = Diffusible hyd. content of weld metal (0.1 to 40 mL/100 g), h = weld metal thickness (15 to 40 mm) and B = UTS of weld metal (600 to 900 MPa)
If clear formulation not available, adopt scrupulous precautions to lower hyd. input : Baking at highest temp. allowed by manufacturer Warm storage , say at 1500C SAW and GMAW wire (leaving weld nozzle) to be clean, rust-free no pick-up en route Allowing adequate interpass time for H to escape (especially during repair procedures) Maintaining preheat temp. for some period after welding - to reduce differential contraction
Excess
RT Temperature
MP
Strain rate : Time necessary for hydrogen to diffuse prior to fracture by other means (Not impact, not tension, but only stress rupture test) Section size Thicker plates: Higher shrinkage stresses, also triaxial (Compressive stresses due to martensite formation only microscopic, so average out) Lower surface-to-mass ratio Longer diffusion distances for H escape (baking time proportional to D2 and t2 ) Coarser grain size (generally)
Above upper limit stress, fracture without delay (not due to H) Below lower limit stress, no damage due to hydrogen
Between these limits, brittle fracture due to hydrogen Time to rupture tR shorter for higher applied stress ( Static fatigue limit ) Incubation time before hydrogen cracking starts, followed by intermittent crack growth in several steps, final catastrophic fracture by overload (section size )
Applied stress
Incubation time
Time to fracture
ti = Incubation time
Compliance or crack opening
ti
Time
Intermittent crack growth
Sorption theory (due to Petch) Hydrogen adsorbed on surface of internal lattice imperfections and microcracks, adsorption reduces surface energy, facilitates crack propagation (Griffith criterion)
Hydrogen in lattice (solute) is the damaging specie, reduces cohesive strength of the base metal bond
Embrittlement in 3 stages : 1) Incubation period hydrogen migrates to high-stress regions (e.g., stress raisers), accumulates to reach a critical level when a crack is nucleated ( triaxiality YS, hydrogen cohesive strength)
2) Initial crack propagates some time, but soon stops as its tip reaches sound metal not yet damaged by hydrogen crack growth arrested However, within a short time, more hydrogen diffuses to fresh crack tip (stress raiser), reduces strength, etc., crack propagation is resumed, cycle repeated intermittent crack growth (incubation periods followed by rapid crack extensions) (crack growth rate just faster than hydrogen diffusion rate!)
3) Crack advances so much that remaining section too weak to sustain applied load catastrophic, ductile fracture