1

3. Diagram T-s or h-s

Enthalpy, Entropy: State
parameters
2 parameters can describe state
of gas
By convention, p-v, T-s, h-s
2
Diag T-s for compression
Equal pressure line
p
2
>p
1
1-2 comp s constant,
Ah=Cp(T
2
-T
1
)
1-2 irreversible comp,
under same p,
Ah=Cp(T
2
-T
1
)
31243 friction heat q
in
1221 due to n =
3
Diag T-s for compression
Total loss 32243
Compressor efficiency
(neglect Cp variation)




Usually use total T
2 1
'
2 1
c
T T
T T
q

=

4
Equal pressure line
p
2
>p
1
1-2 expan s constant,
Ah=Cp(T
1
-T
2
)
1-2 irreversible comp,
under same p,
Ah=Cp(T
1
-T
2
)
31243 friction heat q
in
1221 due to n =
Diag T-s for expansion
5
Total loss 32243
Turbine efficiency
(neglect Cp variation)





T T
T T
T
2 1
'
2 1

=
q
Diag T-s for expansion
6
Diagram h-s
Using diagram h-s shows directly
relations of energy exchanges
Compression efficiency q
C
=A/C

Expansion efficiency q
T
=C/A
7
4. Cycle and cycle efficiency
Thermal machines transfer heat
energy to mechanical energy
SubstanceAir
ExpansionMechanical work

Thermal cycle
8
Carnots cycle
DA
AB, heating
q
1

BC
CD, release
heat q
2
unavoidably
9
Carnots cycle
Efficiency


T
1
| orT
2
+
q
t
|



T
T
q
q q
t
1
2
1
2 1
1 =

=
q
10
Generic cycle

Efficiency


At the same T
1

and T
2
, Carnots
cycle has the
highest efficiency.
A B A
A B A
t
S
S
43 1
2 1
=
q
11
1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics
1. Continuity equation

1
A
1
v
1
=
2
A
2
v
2
=q
m
(1-29)
V is speed



For incompressible,
1
=
2

A
1
v
1
=A
2
v
2
(1-30)

12
2. Energy equation
A volume of air from
1-2 to 1-2 in dt
Adding heat qdm
Output work Wdm
dm=vAdt is mass
flow at any section
Kinetic energy
change
|
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
d
2
1
2
2
v v
m
1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics
13
2. Energy equation (Cont'd)
Internal energy
change: dm(u
2
-u
1
)
Work to gas
p
2
v
2
A
2
dt-p
1
v
1
A
1
dt
Neglecting gravity,
then
W
v
h
v
h
q
+ + = + +
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
14
2. Energy equation(Cont'd)

If q=W=0, then



or



2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
v
h
v
h
+ = +
const T
v
c
p
= +
2
2
15
2. Energy equation (Cont'd)




Means that when gas
flowing in a tube (with
friction), enthalpy +
kinetic energy remains
unchanged if no work
gets into the act.
const T
v
c
p
= +
2
2
16
1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics (Cont'd)
3. Bernoullis equation
Differential for of above equation


First law of thermodynamics


dW dv dh dq + + =
2
2
1

1
pd du dq dq
in
+ = +
f in
dW dq =
17
3. Bernoullis equation (Cont'd)

Enthalpy definition


Then


Integration


dp pd dh p d dh du

1 1 1

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
2
2
= + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
f
dW dW
v
d
dp

( ) 0
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
= + + +
}
f
W W v v
dp

18
3. Bernoullis equation (Cont'd)



First term depends on the process
If no work (W=0) and isentropic (W
f
=0)p
-
=const

( ) 0
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
= + + +
}
f
W W v v
dp

0
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
=

+
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

v v
p
p
RT

19
3. Bernoullis equation (Cont'd)



First term depends on the process
Isentropic and incompressible, W=0:
( ) 0
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
= + + +
}
f
W W v v
dp

1 2
2
1
p p dp
=
}
const
v
p
v
p = + = +
2 2
2
1
1
2
2
2

20
3. Bernoullis equation (Cont'd)
Isentropic
( ) 0
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
= + + +
}
f
W W v v
dp

0
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
=

+
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

v v
p
p
RT

Generic
21
1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics (Cont'd)
4. Sound speed and Mach number
Sound speed in fluid



In air, sound propagation is seen as adiabatic process, ie.
p
-
= const. Then


Ratio of specific heats
RGas constant
TAbsolute temperature

d
dp
c =
T c R =
22
4. Sound speed and M (Cont'd)

Mach Number



M>1Supersonic
M<1Subsonic
M1Transonic

c
v
M =
23
1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics (Cont'd)
5. Stagnation parameters of flow and
aerodynamic functions
From above equations, flow kinetic
energy (speed), enthalpy and pressure
potential energy can be converted from
one to others.

+ |h v
and
+ p
24
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
If flow stagnates (v=0) as isentropic
process, the kinetic energy is
converted totally to enthalpy. It is
called stagnation enthalpy, or total
enthalpy

(1-38)

2
2
*
v
T c h
p
+ =
25
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
v: ordered movement
T: disordered movement
2
2
*
v
T c h
p
+ =
26
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Corresponding stagnation temperature
or total temperature:
(1-39)

Since

1-40

R cp
1
=

p
c
v
T T
2
2
*
+ =
T c R =
2
*
2
1
1 M
T
T
+ =

27
Stagnation process
Its isentropic, so

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
T
T
v
v
p
p
*
*
1
*

28
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Since stagnation is isentropic, so:

(1-41)


(1-42)

p*Total Pressure
*Total Density
1
2
*
2
1
1

|
.
|

\
|

+ =

M
p
p
1
1
2
*
2
1
1

|
.
|

\
|

+ =

M
29
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
According to the 3 equations above, for a
given gas flow, the ratios of the total
parameters and steady parameters are
function of Mach number.
When air flows isentropically in a tube
without energy added, the total
parameters (Enthalpy, temperature,
pressure and density) remain unchanged.
30
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Critical sound speed c
cr
(in tunnel)







v increases along the tunnel (ex. Laval nozzle)
When v increases, T decreases. Sound speed
c is function of T, it goes down.
31
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Critical sound speed c
cr
(in tunnel)







When v=c, ie M=1, this c has special meaning,
called critical sound speed c
cr
. This section is
called critical section and it is the smallest
section in the tunnel, also called throat.
32
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Critical sound speed c
cr
(in tunnel)





c
cr
is a parameter of the isentropic flow of
the tunnel.
c
cr
is constant in this kind of flow.
33
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Definition of speed coefficient in a
section
(1-43)

From (1-40) , we obtain




cr
c
v
=
*
1
2
T T
cr
+
=

2
*
2
1
1 M
T
T
+ =

34
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
And



*
1
2
T T
cr
+
=

* 2
1
2
RT c
cr

+
=
*
1
2
RT c
cr

+
=
35
C and C
cr
C C
cr
Apply to local tunnel
Depending on T T*
Speed ratio M
Relation (see following) M
36
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Using



in , we obtain

and

2
2
2 2
c
c
M
cr
=
* 2
1
2
RT c
cr

+
=
RT c =
2
2
*
2
1
1 M
T
T
+ =

2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
M
M

+
+
=

2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2

+
= M
37
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Change (1-40), (1-41) & (1-42) to

(1-46)


(1-47)


(1-48)

t(), t() and c() three aerodynamic func

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

= =
2
*
1
1
1 ) (

t
T
T
1
2
*
1
1
1 ) (

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

= =

t
p
p
1
1
2
*
1
1
1 ) (

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

= =

c
38
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Flow density function

kg/s

vA q
m
=
1
1
2 *
1
1
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

*
1
2
RT c v
cr

+
= =
*
1
1
2 *
1
2
1
1
1 RT v

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

39
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Flow density function


(1-49)
q() presents relative flow density in
section A to the critical section even
though the critical section does not exist.
Ratio of the sections
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
) (
) (

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
.
|

\
|
+
= = =

A
A
v
v
q
cr
cr
40
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
Using flow density function and total
parameters, mass flow can be expressed:

1-50
where


Air 0.04042, gas 0.03968
*
*
) (
T
Aq p
K q
m

=
1
1
1
2

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

R
K
J
K kg.
41
5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
At the critical section, q()=1.


*
*
T
A p
K q
cr
m
=
42
1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics
6. Equation of momentum
Based on second Newtons law
Momentum change of an object at a
period of time is equal to the applied
force
In aircraft engines
) (
1 2
v v q F
m

=
43
1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics
7. Equation of moment of momentum
Similar with above equation, but
rotational movement

( ) ( ) ( )

= v m r
dt
d
F r

44
1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics
8. Shock waves and expansion waves
Ex. The tail trace when a boat goes with
a high speed.

M>1
M=1
45
8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Contd)
Or bridge pier when water flows.
Accumulation of disturbances

M>1
M=1
46
8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Contd)
Intakes: Fig (a) normal shock wave, due to
intakes form; Fig (b) oblique shock wave
The angle | depends on Mach number of the
flow and geometrical angle of the cone u.
47
8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Contd)
When M reduces or u increases,
will increase until the wave
becomes a normal shock wave.
48
8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Contd)
When supersonic flow passes
through the shock wave, sharply
speed decreases, pressure and
temperature increase.
After normal wave, the flow is
certainly subsonic. But after oblique
shock wave, it is still supersonic.
49
8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Contd)
Strength of the shock wave is
described by pressure ratio of after
and before. It is only function of M
for normal shock wave, the greater
M, the stronger the wave.
For oblique shock wave, the greater
M and u, the stronger the wave.
50
8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Contd)
Supersonic flow passing through the shock
wave is NOT isentropic process. Partial
mechanical energy Irreversibly changes to
heat, and total pressure decreases.
This is shock wave loss, and usually total
pressure recovery o is used to present the
loss. It is function of the wave strength, the
stronger the wave, the greater the loss.
51
8. Expansion waves (Contd)
When a supersonic
air flows to a lower
pressure zone, there
are expansion waves
due to air continuous
expansion.
In Fig, turbine
cascade passage. In
the throat AA,
critical section, flow
becomes supersonic.
52
8. Expansion waves (Contd)
In downstream, it is
low pressure zone.
The flow accelerates,
it passes through a
series of expansion
waves, and speed
increases,
temperature and
pressure decrease.
53
8. Expansion waves (Contd)
The flow changes
also the direction. The
bigger the turned
angle, the more
expansion and flow
parameters change
more.
54
8. Expansion waves (Contd)
The turned angle
depends on exit
pressure. The lower
the pressure, the
bigger the angle.
If pressure increases,
expansion waves may
disappear and the
flow may be subsonic.
55
Summary
1.1 First law of thermodynamics
Gas, state parameters, gas constants, processes
and parameters
Enthalpy and first law
1.2 Second law of thermodynamics
Entropy and second law
Cycle and efficiency
1.3 Aerodynamics fundamental equations
Fundamental equations
Sound speed and Mach number
Stagnation parameters and aerodynamic functions
Shockwaves and expansion waves