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EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

Metabolism of different chemical substances produce nitrogen containing waste products such as ammonia , urea and uric acid . The process of elimination of nitrogenous waste products are called excretion. Based on the mode of nitrogen excretion there are Ammonotelism Ureotelism Uricotelism

Ammonotelism
The process of excretion of nitrogenous waste in the form of ammonia is called ammonotelism. The animals which excrete ammonia are called ammonotelic . Ammonia is highly toxic and water soluble . A large amount of water is required for its elimination . So ammonotelism is seen in aquatic animals Eg. Aquatic invertebrates , bony fishes , aquatic amphibians , tadpoles etc

Ureotelism
The process of excretion of nitrogenous waste in the form of urea is called ureotelism. The animals which excrete urea is called ureotelic . Urea is less toxic and highly soluble in water than ammonia Eg . man and other mammals , terrestrial amphibians , marine fishes etc

Uricotelism
The animals which excrete the nitrogenous waste in the form of uric acid are called uricotelism. Uric acid is less soluble in water and hence it does not require water for its excretion .So uricotelism is exhibited by animals which require water conservation. Eg . reptiles , birds , insects land snails etc

Excretory organs of invertebrates


1. Protonephridia (flame cells) These are the excretory structures of platyhelminthes (flat worms) eg. Planaria ,rotifers , some annelids and cephalochordates eg. Amphioxus.

2. Nephridia
These are the excretory structures of the earthworms and other annelids

3.Malphigian tubules
These are excretory structures of most insects like cockroach

4. Antennal glands or green glands These are excretory structures of crustaceans like prawn

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretory system of man consists of A pair of kidneys A pair of uretes Urinary bladder Urethra

Each kidney is bean shaped and reddish brown structures situated on either side of the vertebral column It measures 10- 12 cm in length , 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness , 120-170 g weight in adults . .

Outer surface of the kidney is convex and inner surface is concave . On the concave side there is a longitudinal opening called hilum

Renal artery and nerves enter the kidney through hilum . Renal vein and ureter leave the kidney through the hilum . The hilum leads to a funnel shaped space called the pelvis

Outer layer of the kidney is renal cortex and inner layer is medulla . Medulla projects into the pelvis called medullary pyramids or renal pyramids. The cortex extends in medulla between the medullary pyramids called Columns Of Bertini

Longitudinal section of kidney

The structural and functional unit of kidney is called nephrons Each kidney has about 1 million nephron.

Nephrons

Parts of nephron
1. Bowmans capsule At the proximal end nephron is curved and expand inwardly to form double walled cup shaped structure called bowmans capsule. 2. Glomerulus The network of capillaries within the bowmans capsule is glomerulus. 3. Malpighian corpuscle Bowmans capsule and glomerulus together called malpighian corpuscle

4. Proximal convoluted tubule The coiled portion of nephron after the malpighian corpuscle is proximal convoluted tubule . 5. Afferent arteriole The artery through which the blood enters the glomerulus is afferent arteriole 6. Efferent arteriole The artery from which the blood leaves the glomerulus is efferent arteriole.

7. Loop of Henle
The tubular portion in between proximal and distal convoluted tubule is Loop of Henle. It consists of a descending limb and an ascending . It lies in the renal medulla As the length of Loop of Henle increases urine is more concentrated. 8. Distal convoluted tubule The highly coiled tubular portion after the ascending limb is distal convoluted tubule. 9. Collecting duct The distal convoluted tubule of many nephrons open into a straight tube called Collecting duct .

Malpighian body (renal corpuscle

Types of nephron
According to position nephron can be divided into two . 1. Juxta medullary nephrons In some nephrons Loop of Henle is very long and runs deep into the medulla . t . These nephrons are called Juxta medullary nephrons . 2. Cortical nephrons The common type of nephrons which have glomeruli in the cortex and short Loop of Henle in the medulla are

Peritubular capillaries
Efferent arteriole emerging from the glomerulus form a fine capillary network around the renal tubule is called peritubular capillaries. Vasa recta Minute vessels of the peritubular capillaries of nephrons run parallel to Loop of Henle forming a U shaped network of blood vessels called vasa recta

MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION


Urine is formed in the nephrons . It involves 3 steps Glomerular filtration Tubular reabsorption Tubular secretion

1.Glomerular filtration
It occurs in the malpighian corpuscles. When blood flows under high pressure through the glomerular capillaries , water and dissolved substances of blood filter out into the lumen of the bowmans capsule . The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of blood through 3 layers the endothelium of glomerular blood vessel , the epithelium of bowmans capsule and a basement membrane between these two layers. The epithelial cells of bowmans capsule called podocytes are arranged in an intricate manner so as to leave some minute spaces called filtration slits or slit pores. This fluid is known as glomerular filtrate

The glomerular filtrate contains all the constituents of blood except blood corpuscles and plasma proteins .(it contains glucose , urea , creatinine , mineral salts etc.) . Therefore it is known as ultra filtration The volume of glomerular filtrate formed in bowmans capsule per unit time is called glomerular filtration rate (GFR) In man GFR rate is 125ml/ minute or about 180L/ day

2.Tubular reabsorption
Out of 180L of glomerular filtrate formed , only 1.5 L of urine is released . So 99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed . Proximal and distal convoluted tubules , the loop of henle and collecting duct are involved in reabsorption. Sugar , vitamins , organic nutrients and water are reabsorbed.

3.Tubular secretion
It is the final step in urine formation and it involves the active secretion of some substances from the blood into the filtrate. Proximal and distal convoluted tubules are the main parts of tubular secretion. It helps in the maintenance of acid base balance of the body

FUNCTIONS OF THE TUBULES


1.Proximal Convoluted Tubules (PCT) About 75% of sodium chloride and water are reabsorbed here. This region helps to maintain a constant pH by absorbing HCO3- (Bicarbonate Ion ) and secreting H+ ions . NH3 , drugs and toxic substances are secreted into the filtratein this region 2. Descending limb of loop of henle It is permeable only to water. About 5% of water is reabsorbed from here. In this region NaCl get concentrated.

3. Ascending limb of loop of henle


It is impermeable to water but permeable to NaCl From here NaCl is reabsorbed to interstitial fluid . 4.Distal convoluted tubule It actively reabsorb NaCl , water and bicarbonate ions. It secrete potassium and hydrogen ions and there by helps to maintain pH 5. Collecting Duct It is permeable to water not to salt in the cortex . As water is reabsorbed urine becomes concentrated in this region Bottom portion of the collecting tubule is permeable to urea also.

Reabsorption and secretion of major substances at different parts of the nephron

Mechanism of concentration of the urine counter current mechanism


The loop of henle and vasa recta are responsible for concentrating the urine . Descending and ascending limb of loop of henle and vasa recta form hair pin loops . The flow of filtrate in the limbs and flow of blood in the vasa recta are in opposite direction . This is known as counter current system . When filtrate flows through the descending limb water and salts are reabsorbed and urine becomes hypertonic . The hypertonic urine , when enters the ascending limb NaCl is reabsorbed into vasa recta and hence urine becomes hypotonic . The hypotonic urine , when passes through the distal convoluted tubule and collecting tubule water is reabsorbed and urine becomes again hypertonic and is excreted. This ability to excrete nitrogenous wastes with minimum loss of water enables humans to lead a successful terrestrial life

Nephron and vasa recta showing counter current mechanisms

Regulation of kidney function


The excretory function of kidney is controlled by two hormone system Control By Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) Control By Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA )

1.Control By Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)


ADH is also called vasopressin . It is secreted by hypothalamus and released into blood by pituitary. Hypothalamus has special receptor known as osmoreceptors for detecting body fluid osmolarity . When body fluid decreases , ADH is secreted and more water is reabsorbed in the kidney tubules . Deficiency of ADH leads to the impermeability of tubules and excretion of large amont of hypotonic urine . This diseases is Diabetes insipidus.

2.Control By Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA) [Renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS )]
The JGA operates a multihormonal RAAS system . When the blood pressure in the afferent arteriole decreases JGA releases an enzyme known as renin .into the blood . Renin converts a plasma protein , angiotensinogen to a hormone known as angiotensin II Angiotensin , constricts the arterioles and blood pressure is increased . Angiotensin also increases blood volume by increasing the absorption of NaCl and water from the proximal convoluted tubule. It also stimulate adrenal gland to produce aldosterone . The aldosterone inturn induces the distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb more Na+ and water and there by increasing blood volume and pressure.

Atrial Natriuretic Factor[ANF]


The hormone secreted by the atria of heart is atrial natriuretic factor Increase in blood flow to the atria cause the release of ANF ANF inhibits the reabsorption of water and NaCl by inhibiting the secretion of renin and aldosterone and there by decrease the blood pressure

MICTURITION
The elimination of urine from the urinary bladder is known as micurition . This is done by simultaneous contraction of the smooth muscles of the urinary bladder and the relaxation of the skeletal muscles around the opening of the bladder . The tendancy for urination is generated by the stretch receptors in the bladder and it send signals to the CNS.The CNS passes on motor messages to the respective muscles .This is the micturition reflex

URINE
Human adult produces around 1 to 1.5 liters of urine per day. It is slightly acidic pH is 6 It is pale yellow in colour , but colour ,volume and composition may change with the nature of dietary intake. Analysis of urine helps to identify many metabolic disorders including malfunctioning of kidney. Eg . Glycosuria - presence of glucose , Ketonuria - presence of ketone bodies indicate diabetes melitus

ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION Lungs Human lungs eliminate 18 L of CO2 and 400 ml water per day in normal respiration Liver Liver is the main site for elimination of cholesterol, bile pigments [ bilirubin and biliverdin ] , inactivated products of steroid hormones , some vitamins and many drugs. Liver secrete these substances through bile Bile carries them to intestine and are eliminated with faeces.

Skin
Human skin posses sweat glands and sebaceous glands Sweat gland produces sweat. It helps to cool the body surface. Through sweating water , NaCl , and small amounts of urea and aminoacids are eliminated from the body. The sebaceous glands produce sebum , which help to keep skin oily. Through sebum , some lipids such as waxes , sterols , other hydrocarbons and fatty acids are eliminated from the body.

DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM


UREMIA The accumulation of urea in blood due to the malfunctioning of kidneys is uremia. Haemodialysis It is the process which is used to purify blood of persons suffering from kidney failure. In haemodialysis blood is taken out from an artery and mixed with an anticoagulant , heparin . Then the blood is pumped to the apparatus called artificial kidney [[haemodialyser] The artificial kidney contains a cellophane tube , bathed in a fluid with ionic concentration similar to plasma The porous cellophane membrane allows the passage of molecules based on concentration gradient As the blood passes through the cellophane tube the wastes diffuses from the blood. The cleared blood is pumped back to the body through a vein after adding anti heparin to it .

Kidney transplantation
Diseases kidney may be replaced with healthy ones by a process known as kidney transplantation Renal calculi It is the kidney stones or insoluble mass of crystallized salts formed in the kidney Glomerulonephritis Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney

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