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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Preliminary Concepts 1.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts 1.2 Variables and Data 1.3 Summation Chapter 2. Data Collection and Presentation 2.1 Data Collection 2.2 Data Presentation 2.3 Graphical Representation of Frequency Distribution
Chapter 3. Measure of Central Tendency 3.1 The Mean 3.2 Median and Mode 3.3 Percentiles, Deciles, and Quartiles Chapter 4. Measure of Disfersion and Skewness 4.1 Measure of Variability 4.2 Coefficient of Variation
Chapter 5. Permutations and Combinations 5.1 Principle of Counting 5.2 Permutations 5.3 Combinations
Chapter 1
Statistical information and development can be traced back from ancient times. People compiled statistical data with regard to all sorts of things such as agricultural crops, athletic events, commerce and trade and so on. As time went by, statistical work has continued to have a marked influence on the activities of mankind in a wider scope from describing important features of the data and analyzing them.
Statistics
A science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw conclusion from data; interpreting and presenting numerical data. Can refer to the mere tabulation of numeric information as in reports of stock, market, transactions, or to the body of techniques used in processing or analyzing data.
Data
Data are the raw material which the statistician works. Data can be found through surveys, experiments, numerical records, and other modes of research.
Statistician
Statistician is also used in several ways. It can be a person who simply collects information or one who prepares analysis or interpretations. It may mean a scholar who develops a mathematical theory on which the science of statistics is based.
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Its main concern is to analyze the organized data leading to prediction or inferences.
The word population and sample are the most commonly used words associated with statistics.
Population
Refers to the groups or aggregates of people, objects, materials, events or thing of any form.
Sample
Statistical data or information can be gathered through different ways such as interviewing people, observing or inspecting items, using questionnaires and checklists. The characteristic that is being studied is called a variable. It varies from one person or thing to another.
Examples of variables for people are height, weight, age, sex, marital status, eye color, etc. The first three of the given variables yield numerical values and are examples of quantitative variables. The last three yield non-numerical values or attributes are examples of qualitative variables.
Qualitative Variables are further classified as either discrete or continuous. A discrete variable is a variable whose values can be counted using integral values such as the number of enrollees, drop-outs, graduates in a certain college, deaths, and number of employees. A continuous variable is a variable that can assume any numerical value over an interval or intervals. Height, weight, temperature, and time are examples of continuous variables.
A variable can be dependent or independent depending on its use. To predict the value of variable on the other, independent variable is the predictor while the dependent variable is the variable whose value is being predicted. For example, to predict the value of sunlight on the growth of a certain plants, the dependent variable is the growth of the plant while the independent variable is the amount of sunlight exposed to the plant.
Nominal Data
Use numbers for the purpose of identifying name or membership in a group or category.
Ordinal Data
Connote ranking or inequalities in this type of data, numbers represents greater than or less than measurement, such as preferences or rankings.
Interval Data
Indicate an actual amount and there is equal unit of measurement separating each score, specifically equal intervals. The true zero is present.
Ratio Data
Similar to interval data but has an absolute zero and multiples are meaningful. It include all the usual measurement of length, height, weight, area, volume, density, velocity, money and duration.
1.3 Summation
This section aims to: Introduce a special notation that will work as a shortcut for expressing sum of terms and thereby appreciate mathematics as a tool of symbols; and State and analyze the properties of summation.
When dealing with a sum of terms, we shall have occasions to use an abbreviated form. This special symbol for writing of sums is called summation.
Summation defined as
i
is
denoted
n
by
is
x =x +x ++x
1 2 i=1
Where 1 and n are called the lower and upper limits respectively. We note that x1, is read as x sub 1
Chapter 2
Types of Data
1. 2. 3. 4.
Primary Data - data collected directly by the researcher himself. These are first-hand or original sources. They can be collected through the ff: Direct observation or measurement (primary source of info). By interview (questionnaires or rating scales). By mail of recording or of recording forms. Experimentation.
Secondary Data
Are information taken from published or unpublished materials previously gathered by other researchers or agencies such as book, newspapers, magazines; journals, published and unpublished thesis and dissertations.
Sampling Technique
It is recommended to prevent the possibility of a bias or erroneous inference. Under the concept of randomness, each member of the population has an equal chance to be included in the sample gathered.
The items or individuals are arranged in some way perhaps alphabetically or other sort.
In this type of planning a population is first divided into subsets based on homogenity called Strata. The Strata are internally homogenous as possible and at the same time each stratum is different from one another as much as possible.
Cluster Sampling
Can be done by subdividing the population into smaller units and then selecting only a random some primary units where the study would then be concentrated if sometimes referred are sampling because it is frequently applied on a geographical basis
For example, a nationwide travel agency offers special rates for package tours during summer. To economize spending for the advertisement only certain age group of people will be sent brochures for attraction. The agency gets to previous passenger customers from its files and groups them according to ages. Only those age groups with least people are sent brochures. The following are the ages of the previous customers:
Example:
59 60 71 41 53 50 61 54 34 43 52 58 44 61 63 38 62 52 50 71 80 51 26 60 65 62 36 63 53 79 77 54 58 62 45 56 18 56 62 66
79
63 60 53 43
77
62 59 52 41
71
52 58 52 38
71
52 58 50 36
66
52 55 50 34
66
61 54 50 26
66
61 54 45 18
45
50
50
51
52
52
53
53
54
54
55
58
58
59
60
60
61
61
62
62
62
62
53
53
66
66
66
71
71
77
79
80
2
3 4 5 6 7 8
8 6 4 1 0 0 1 0
6 3 0 0 1
8 4 1 1 7
5 2 2 3 4 4 5 8 8 1 2 2 2 3 3 6 6 9
Tally Method
CLASS LIMIT 80-89 70-79 60-69 50-59 40-49 30-39 TALLY I IIII IIIII-IIIIIIII IIIII-IIIIIIII IIII III f 1 4 13 13 4 3 CLASS BOUNDARY 79.5-89.5 69.5-79.5 59.5-69.5 49.5-59.5 39.5-49.5 29.5-39.5
20-29
10-19
I
I
1
1 n=40
19.5-29.5
9.5-19.5
Graphical forms of presenting information is often more helpful in making a stronger impact. There are some features in tabular form, which cant be discerned simply by looking at raw data.
Frequency Histogram
It is a bar graph that displays the classes or the horizontal axis and the frequency of the classes on the vertical axis.
Frequency Histogram
14 12 10 8 Series1 6 4 2 0 14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5
Frequency Polygon
It is a line chart that is constructed by plotting the frequencies and class mark and connecting the plotted pointed by means of a straight line; the polygon us closed by considering an additional class at each end and each end of the lines are brought down to the horizontal axis at the mid point of the additional classes.
Frequency Polygon
14 12 10 8 Series1 6 4 2 0 14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5
Ogive
It is a graph of a cumulative frequency distribution and sometimes called a cumulative frequency distribution graph.
Ogive
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 9.5 19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5 69.5 79.5 Series1 Series2
Pie Chart
It is a graphical presentation that uses circle or pie.
Pie Chart
36 27 36 9 9
117
Chapter 3
The most commonly used measure of central tendency is the mean. When taking an average, it is the mean that is often referring to.
This section is divided into two: the mean for ungrouped data and the mean for grouped data
Mean average value of the given data. - not appropriate measures of central tendency if there is outer.
2. Median divide the distribution into two equal parts (upper 50% and the lower 50%)
UNGROUPED DATA
25 32 41 58 78 9 5 105 110 112 112 115 Mean = X n = 883 11 = 80.2727
GROUPED DATA
Short Method
Mean = AM (fd/n) i
Long Method
Mean = fx n
= 2250 40 Mean = 56.25
B. Median - is the middle measure in a set of measures arranged in order magnitude. If the total number of measure is given by the average of two middle measures. Thus, in the median, half the distribution lies above it.
Mode = 112 if in case of two mode, it is called bimodal. if no mode, there is no pair of data.
C. Mode - is the item or measure which occurs most often. It has the highest number of frequency.
ASSUMED MEAN
Mean = AM+ (fd/n)i = 64.5+ (-33/40)10 = 64.5-8.25 Mean = 56.25
Median
Median = LL+(n/2-<cf) i f
= LL + (20-9/13)10 = 49.5 + (11/13) 10 = 49.5 + 8.4615 Median =57.9615
Mode Mode= LL + (1/ 1+ 2) i *where 1 = difference between the modal class and the next lower score. 2 = difference between the modal class and the next upper score.
Measure of Location
Position/Location
QUARTILE (Q)
DECILE (D)
D1 -10% D2 20% D3 30% D4- 40% D5- 50% D6- 60% D7- 70% D8- 80% D9- 90%
PERCENTILE (P)
P1- 1/100 P2- 2/100 P3- 3/100 P4- 4/100 P5- 5/100 .. P99- 99/100
UNGROUPED DATA
85 92 105 118 126 149 165 189 205 210 220
Q1 : 0.25n = 0.25(11) = 2.75 d = 105-92 = 13 c = 13(0.75) = 9.75 Q1= 92=9.75 Q1= 101.75
P3 : 0.3n = 0.3(11) = 8.25 d = 118-105= 13 c = 13(0.3) = 3.9 P3= 105+3.9 P3= 108.9
GROUPED DATA
C.I. 80-89 70-79 f 1 4 <cf 40 39 X 84.5 74.5 <cf 1 5 f/n 0.0025 0.1000 sector 9percen t 36
60-69 50-59
40-49 30-39 20-29 10-19
13 13
4 3 1 1 n=40
35 22
9 5 2 1
64.5 54.5
44.5 34.5 24.5 14.5
18 31
35 38 39 40
0.3250 0.3250
0.1000 0.0750 0.0250 0.0250 rf=1
117 117
36 27 9 9
= 49.5 + 0.1538
P23 = 49.6538
1. Range = H.S. L.S. C.L. Range 80-89 8905-9.5 = 80 2. Mean Average Deviation - takes into account all the variables in a given distribution.
MAD = |x-x| n
4. Quartile Deviation - semi- center quartile range. - represent mid-point of middle part of a distribution.
FORMULA:
UNGROUPED DATA: QD = Q3 Q1 2
Chapter 4
MEASURE OF VARIABILITY
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION Coefficient of Variation denoted by CV allows the variability of scores in 2 sets of data that do not necessarily measures the same thing. The one who got highest scores is the one who needs improvement.
FORMULA: CV SD x 100% x
Example:
10- Highest 1- Lowest
1 2 Coke
4 8
5 9
6 5
7 8
8 6
9 8
10 10
8 10 2
Pepsi
8 1 10 9 3 7 8
10
x= 7.4 (coke)
x 8 7.4 x .6 x-x .6 |x-x| (x-x)2 .36 64 (x)2
10 2 8 9 5 8 6 8 10
100 4 64 81 25 64 36 64 100
(x)2=602
x= 7.3 (pepsi)
x 9 8 1 10 9 3 7 8 8 10 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 x 1.7 0.7 -6.3 2.7 1.7 -4.3 -0.3 0.7 0.7 2.7 x-x |x-x| 1.7 0.7 6.3 2.7 1.7 4.3 0.3 0.7 0.7 2.7
|x-x|=
(x-x)2 2.87 0.49 39.69 7.29 2.87 18.47 0.09 0.49 0.49 7.29
(x-x)2=80.1
Coke
CV = SD x 100% x
CV= 204585 x 100% 7.4 SD= (x-x)2 n-1
= 54.4 9 = 6.04
CV= 33.2229%
SD= 2.4585
Pepsi
SD= (x-x)2 n-1 = 80.1 10-1 = 80.1 9 = 8.9 SD = 2.9833 SD2= 8.9
DECISION:
Pepsi needs more improvement than coke in terms of
taste
A distribution of 2 different units is given to compare in dispersion of heights versus in dispersion of weights. The mean height is 5.70 feet with SD = 0.9 ft. The mean weight is 72.5 kg with SD = 801 kg. Compare the dispersion in heights and in weights.
HEIGHTS
CV = SD x 100% x = 0.9 x 100% 5.7 = 0.15789 = 15.7985%
WEIGHTS
CV = SD x 100% x = 8.1 x 10% 72.5 = 0.111724 = 11.1724%
MEASURE OF SKEWNESS
3.SK3 = Q3 2Q2 + Q1 Q3 Q1
4. SK4 = P90 2P50 + P10 P90 P10
UNGROUPED DATA
5. SK5 = f(x-x)3 n(SD)3
GROUPED DATA
SK5 = f(x-x)3 n(SD)3
Normal Distribution
Measure of Kurtosis
Ungrouped Data
Grouped
K = (x-x)4 n(SD)4
K= f(x-x)4 n(SD)4
Leptokurtic Distribution
Mesokurtic Distribution
Platykurtic Distribution
Chapter 5
Principle of Counting
If a choice of 2 steps of which the first can be made in n1 ways and a second can be made in n2 ways, then the whole choice can be made by n1 n2 ways.
EXAMPLES:
1. In a class of 20 the # of ways selecting president, Vice-President, Secretary, treasurer is 20 . 19 . 18 . 17 = 116280
2. Certain government employees are classified into 2 categories Sex: (male, female) Marital Status : (single. Married, widow, separated) 2 . 4 = 8
If a choice has k steps of which the first can be made ian N1 ways, of which each of these 2nd can be made in n2 ways. 3rd of which of these kth can be made in nk which then the whole choice can be made by n1 . n2 . nk(ways)
EXAMPLES: 1. A test is compose of a 10 multiple question with each having four(4) possible answers. 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 = 1,048,576
2. How many nos, of five(5) digits each can be made from the digit 1-9 if: a. No. must be odd b. The last two(2) digit each no. are even number. Repetition is not allowed
1 ,2 ,3 , 4 , 5
5.2 Permutations
This section aims to: Define and illustrate permutations Apply permutations in various situational conditions; and State and illustrate the circular permutation.
PERMUTATIONS
Arrangement of group of things in a definite order that is, there is a 1st element, 2nd element, 3rd element etc. In other words, the order of arrangement of an element is important.
EXAMPLES:
1. In how many ways can the five(5) starting position on the PBA team with 12 mean who can play any of the position.
12P5 = 12! = 12! = 12 .11 .10 .9 . 8 . 7 . 6 . 5 .4 .3 .2 .1 = 95,040 (12-5) 7! 7!
2. How many permutation can be made from the letter of q word Sunday? a. If the four(4) letters are use at a time. 6P4 = 6! = 6! = 360 (6-4)! 2! b. All letters are used 6P6 = 6! = 720 6!
FORMULAS:
1ST Formula: the number if permutation n things taken n at a time is nPn=n!
2nd Formula: the number of permutation of n things is taken at a time is nPr = n (n-r)
CIRCULAR PERMUTATION
The permutation that occur by arranging objects in a circle are called circular permutation
P = (n-1)!
COMBINATION
A combination also concerns arrangement but without regards to order. This means that the order or arrangement in which the element are taken is not important. nCr = n! r!(n-1)!
The End
Thank You!
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