Core U Aspects of human reproduction

Content

Gametogenesis Roles of hormones in the menstrual cycle Controlling human reproduction

Lesson objectives 1

Students should be able to: 1. describe the histology of the mammalian ovary and testis; and 2. outline gametogenesis in a male and female human as a process involving mitosis, growth, meiosis and maturation.

Introduction
Human can only reproduce sexually to pass on their genes. Fusion of the male and the female gametes occur in the process of fertilisation. A zygote is formed and, eventually, forming a baby.
But how are the female and the male gametes formed? How does fertilisation occur?

The reproductive organs

Because the reproductive organs of a male and a female are very closely associated to the urinary system, together they are often called the urinogenital system.

Seminal vesicle Prostate gland

Urinary bladder clitoris

Gametogenesis
Definition:
Production of gametes. 1. Spermatogenesis. production of sperm. occurs in the testis. 2. Oogenesis. production of ova (egg cells). occurs in the ovary. completed after fertilisation by sperm cell.

Spermatogenesis
sperm production begins at puberty (app. 11 years old). continue production throughout life.
100 200 million sperms produced every day. sperm produced and differentiates at the seminiferous tubules in the testes. the spermatozoa matures and are stored in the epididymis.

Development of sperm in spermatogenesis:

1. Germinal epithelial cells (2n) divides by mitosis to form spermatogonia (2n).

*Germinal epithelium: cells that line up the wall of the seminiferous tubules and the wall of the ovary. gametes are derived from the germinal epithelium. 2. Spermatogonia (2n) divides by mitosis to form more spermatogonia (2n).

*primary spermatocyte: relatively larger than spermatogonia. divides by meiosis to eventually form spermatozoa.

3. Some spermatogonia grow much larger than the other spermatogonia to form primary spermatocytes (2n). 4. The primary spermatocytes (2n) divides by meiosis I to form secondary spermatocytes (n). 5. The secondary spermatocytes (n) divides by meiosis II to form spermatids (n).

6. The spermatids differentiates/develops into spermatozoa (aka sperm cells). The differentiation of the spermatids are 'nursed' by the Sertoli cells (aka nurse cells).

*Sertoli cells: large cells that interact with the hormones (testosterone) secreted by the Leydig cells (cells outside the seminiferous tubules). They provide nourishment and protection to the maturing spermatids.

(2n)

CS of cells in the testis.

LS of spermatozoa

Oogenesis
Oocyte formation starts while developing in the uterus. until prophase 1 only. oogonia divides to form primary oocytes. only about 400 000 primary oocytes present at birth. At puberty, some primary oocytes undergoes nuclear division until end of meiosis I only. secondary oocyte and polar body formed. polar body disintegrates. secondary oocyte continues meiosis II until metaphase II only.

 ovulation occurs when secondary oocyte is released into the oviduct. the secondary oocyte will only continue meiosis II IF FERTILSATION occurs.

Development of an ovum in oogenesis: 1. Germinal epithelial cells (2n) divide by mitosis to form oogonia (2n).

2. The oogonia (2n) divides by mitosis to form more oogonia (2n).

3. Some of the oogonia divides by meiosis to become the primary oocytes (n). The primary oocytes only reaches Prophase I. Steps 1 3 occurs while the girl is still an embryo. There are about 400,000 primary oocytes in the ovaries at birth.

4. At puberty, some primary oocytes (n) continue meiotic cell division to form secondary oocytes (n) and polar bodies (n).
polar body (smaller than the secondary oocyte) disintegrates.

5. Secondary oocytes (n) continue meiosis II, but until metaphase II only. 6. Every month, a secondary oocyte is released into the oviduct by the process called ovulation. 7. The secondary oocyte will only complete meiosis II if fertilisation occurs.

The secondary oocyte. protected by: 1. zona pellucida thick and transparent membrane (glycoproteins) protects the secondary oocyte hardens after first sperm head penetrates 2. granulosa cells secretes oestrogen and progesterone. surrounds zona pellucida also protects the secondary oocyte prior to fertilisation.

Mature Graafian follicle

Links to animation on spermatogenesis and oogenesis:

http://wps.aw.com/bc_martini_eap_4/40/10469/2680298.cw/content/index.html

Lesson objectives 2
Students should be able to: 3. explain the roles of hormones in maintenance of the human menstrual cycle, and link this to the changes in the ovary and uterus during the cycle; 4. outline the biological basis of the effect of oestrogen/progesterone contraceptive pills; and

5. discuss and evaluate the biological, social and ethical implications of the use of contraception.

The menstrual cycle

starts at puberty (10-14 years old).
stops at menopause (app. 50 years old). depends on the no. of secondary oocytes present in the ovaries.

controlled by hormones:
1. luteinising hormone (LH) 2. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) 3. oestrogen 4. progesterone

Stages in the menstrual cycle: 1. LH and FSH secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain during menstruation. both stimulate a 'dominant' follicle to secrete oestrogen. 2. Oestrogen secreted by the follicle has negative feedback on LH and FSH secretion. LH and FSH concentration in blood drops. oestrogen stimulates endometrium (lining of uterus) to become thicker. Many blood capillaries are formed.

3. When oestrogen level is 2-4 times higher than at the beginning of the cycle: it stimulates rapid secretion of LH by anterior pituitary gland. it also stimulates small secretion of FSH.
4. Rapid increase in LH concentration in blood causes the dominant Graafian follicle to burst. secondary oocyte released into the oviduct. remnant of the follicle (granulosa cells) becomes corpus luteum ('yellow body').

Corpus luteum

5. Corpus luteum secretes progesterone.

progesterone maintains the thickening of the endometrium. makes the endometrium ready for implantation of embryo, IF fertilisation occurs. 6. If fertilisation doesn't occur, the endometrium lining will be shed. menstruation occurs. corpus luteum changes to corpus albican ('white body'). corpus albican will be broken down by macrophages.

Contraception
Definition: Using artificial methods or techniques to prevent fertilisation or pregnancy as a consequence of sexual intercourse. Some prevention methods actually prevent embryo from implanting into the lining of the uterus (endometrium). anti-implantation methods a.k.a. contragestives, eg. using intra-uterine devices (IUDs) and the 'morning after' pill.

Copper IUD

Hormonal IUD

1. The birth control pill taken by women only. contains either progesterone or combined (oestrogen and progesterone) hormones. combined oestrogen and progesterone pills are a.k.a. combined oral contraceptives. both are steroid hormones. these hormones are usually synthetic. legal use in the US since 1960. currently used by 100 million women worldwide. Q: Why is the consumption of these pills so popular?

Combined oral contraceptive pill

A: Freedom to have sexual intercourse without worries of getting pregnant. Q: How does the pill work? A: By suppressing ovulation, i.e. prevents the release of secondary oocyte into the oviduct. take 1 pill every day during menstruation-free period. the pills contain oestrogen and progesterone. both inhibit the secretion of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary gland. this prevents the follicle or secondary oocyte from developing into Graafian follicle.

2. The 'morning-after' pill taken by women after unprotected sexual intercourse. works up to 72 hours (3 days) after the sexual intercourse. The earlier, the better. contains synthetic progesterone-like hormone.

reduces the chance of sperm reaching and fertilising a secondary oocyte. in most cases, it prevents embryo implantation into the endometrium.

Issues or implications of contraception

Arguments supporting contraceptions and antiimplantation methods: 1. Prevents mental or psychological distress due to termination of unwanted pregnancies. 2. Use of these methods can help reduce world population growth. 3. Enables women to have better control of their lives in case if their partners are not interested in preventing them from getting pregnant.

Arguments against contraceptions and anti-implantation methods: Biological: increased rate of infection with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), e.g. gornorrhea, etc. Social: contributes to higher marriage breakdowns. many children are brought up by single parents. psychologically unhealthy for children developments. increase parental worries. children can get the contraceptives very easily.

Ethical:

increased promiscuity (having many sexual relationships). some groups of people, e.g. muslims, conservatives, etc. think that it's best for people to only have sexual intercourse after marriage or limit their sexual activity to a single partner.
use of anti-implantation pills are viewed by some as 'unsupervised abortion on demand'.

Lesson objectives 3

Students should be able to:

6. outline the technique of in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) and discuss its ethical implications; and 7. use the knowledge gained in this section in other situations or to solve related problems.

Infertility
inability to conceive or get pregnant. a couple is said to be infertile if they fail to conceive after 12 months of trying.
now, many couple seek consultation regarding their fertility because: 1. they cannot accept their infertility. cause major devastations and life crisis.

2. delay of having their first child. probability to conceive decreases as a woman ages.

Causes of infertility
50% caused by problems in the woman's reproductive system. 35% caused by men. The rest: unknown.

different treatments can be given depending on the cause of infertility.

In-vitro fertilisation (IVF)

Definition:
the addition of sperms to mature egg in a petri dish or other container where fertilisation will occur. only done if the couple can produce normal eggs and sperms.

How IVF is done: Step 1:

stimulation of ovulation. use hormones (FSH) to induce development of several follicles. natural surge of LH is blocked to prevent ovulation of secondary oocyte into the oviduct.
Step 2: collection of secondary oocyte. use tube, guided or monitored using ultrasound. inserted through the vagina and cervix.

Step 3: collection of semen. the sperms are washed. then placed in a liquid medium with nutrients and substances to activate them.

Step 4:
Fertilisation: (i) by putting the secondary oocytes, each into a separate petri dish. Sperms are then added.

(ii) by injecting a sperm nucleus into the secondary oocyte using intracytoplasmic sperm injection method. done if the sperms cannot fertilise an egg by themselves. Problem: increased risk of abnormalities in the offspring born. (natural fertilisation will only allow the fittest sperm to fertilise the egg). Step 5: implantation of fertilised egg. only 2 will be chosen and inserted into the uterus. insertion of the fertilised egg is similar to step 2.

Issues with IVF to treat infertility

Ethical issues: 1. What happen to the embryos that are not implanted? The embryos are, regarded by some, as already a human being. If the embryos are discarded, then many would regard this as abortion. In some countries, the unused embryo may be used as a source of pluripotent stem cell, to treat diff. illnesses. But, this again is considered unethical. 2. Sometimes, the sperms may not have come from the husband. To some group of people, this is like premarital sex.

Other modifications to IVF:

Frozen embryo replacement.

Sometimes, the embryo formed during IVF are frozen in liquid nitrogen to preserve them for later use. especially helpful to women who has to undergo medical treatment that may damage her ovaries, e.g. chemotherapy.

 Ethical issues: same as issues with IVF. additional issues: (i) permission to implant the frozen embryo, esp. if 1 of the partners do not want to have it anymore. (ii)mixing up of the embryos. Some couples may be raising other couple's embryo, so may create distress within the family.

Sperm banks. a place where sperms are stored for infertility treatments, e.g. IVF, whether the sperms come from the woman's actual partner or not. sperms are frozen by cryopreservation, in liquid nitrogen. useful esp. for men who are facing medical treatment or have a progressive illness that might make him infertile.

 the sperms will be carefully labelled and stored in a secured place to avoid mix-ups and sabotage. if the sperm comes from other donors, they will have a background check on genetic diseases, etc. and kept in a so-called donor profile (confidential). the woman chooses the sperms by reading the profiles only. raise ethical issues, e.g. in islam, the insemination of egg by sperms from a man other than her husband is prohibited.