Chapter 4 - Learning

Dr. Mary Streit Assistant Professor of Psychology Suffolk Community College Copyright 2007

Chapter 4 - Learning
Learning is defined as: a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience and/or practice. Associative learning: learning that occurs by making a connection or association between two events. There are two types of associative learning: 1. Classical conditioning association between stimuli in the environment and involuntary reflexive behaviors such as salivation. 2. Operant conditioning association between the consequences of our behaviors and our voluntary actions.

Chapter 4 - Learning
Classical conditioning. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. Pavlov used dogs as his research subjects. Key terms: Stimulus = activating event in the environment Response = reaction to the activating event - Pavlov taught dogs to salivate in reaction to hearing a bell ring.

Chapter 4 - Learning
During conditioning or learning: A bell rang, and immediately after the bell rang, the dogs received food. Bell + Food = salivation

Through associative learning, the dogs learned to associate the bell with the food.

Chapter 4 - Learning
Eventually, after repeatedly pairing the bell with the food, the bell was able to act in the place of the food. Bell [alone] = salivation
- The dogs were able to salivate in response to just

the bell ringing, without the food being present.

- This is known as classical conditioning.

**In classical conditioning, an involuntary or reflexive behavior such as salivation, is associated with another stimulus in the environment like a bell. An involuntary or reflexive behavior is one that you do not have to learn how to do. It is instinctual or automatic. You are born with it!

Pavlovs Analysis and Terminology

Before conditioning: Bell (Neutral stimulus) == no relevant response Food (Unconditioned stimulus) =Salivation (UCResponse) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

During conditioning: Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) = Salivation (UCR) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------After conditioning: Bell (CS) == Salivation (CR)

Chapter 4 - Learning
Pavlovs terminology. Unconditioned: means without learning or conditioning. UCS = unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that cause a response that you do NOT have to learn. What was this in Pavlovs study? UCR = unconditioned response: a reaction to a stimulus that you do NOT have to learn. What was this in Pavlovs study?

Chapter 4 - Learning
What are some examples of other involuntary or reflexive unconditioned responses (UCRs): - Knee jerk patellar reflex: response to doctors tap - Blinking: response to air puffs to the eye - Sweating: response to heat - Shivering: response to cold - Emotional reactions such as fear - Salivation: response to the sight or smell of food - Nauseau: response to certain smells or sights Can you think of any others? What are the unconditioned stimuli in each of the above examples?

Chapter 4 Learning
More Terminology: - The stimulus that does not cause any relevant reaction or response prior to conditioning or learning is called the neutral stimulus. - In Pavlovs experiment, the neutral stimulus is the bell. - Prior to conditioning, the bell does not cause the dog to salivate.

Pavlovs study
Conditioned means learned or trained. A conditioned stimulus = a stimulus that you have learned to connect with another stimulus through associative learning or repeated pairing. A conditioned response = a response that you have learned to do in reaction to a stimulus. This response is not innate or something you are born with. It must be learned!!!

Chapter 4 - Learning
In the following examples, see if you can figure out what is the: Neutral stimulus (NS), UCS, UCR, CS, & CR. 1. Every time June goes to visit Grandma at her cute little yellow house in Queens, she notices that it is very hot. When she asks Grandma about it, Granny says she likes to keep it at a toasty 80 degrees all day long. June sweats profusely and leaves Grannys house feeling drained. After repeatedly visiting Grandma, June eventually begins to sweat when she pulls up to the curb of Grandmas cute little yellow house in Queens, before she even goes inside.

Chapter 4 - Learning
2. Johnny yells Bye Mom! every morning before he goes to school. Right after he yells, he slams the door loudly behind him. Johnnys Mom jumps in reaction to the slam. Eventually, Johnnys yell of Bye Mom! causes his mother to jump, before the door even slams.

Chapter 4 Learning Applications

John Watson believed that many fears and phobias are initially acquired through classical conditioning. Examples: a phobia of cotton balls or a phobia of clowns (coulrophobia). Both of these phobias often begin at an early age through classical conditioning. Can you figure out how these phobias started by using classical conditioning terms?

Chapter 4 Classical Conditioning

Conditioned emotional responses. In a famous experiment conducted by (Watson & Raynor, 1920) Little Albert was trained through classical conditioning to fear a rat.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KxKfpKQzow8

Chapter 4 - Learning
In a similar line of thinking, fears and phobias can also be de-conditioned or unlearned through classical conditioning. The case of Little Peter who was afraid of a rabbit (Jones, 1924) illustrates the concept of counterconditioning. Peter was given candy in the presence of the rabbit he feared. Eventually, his fear disappeared. Systematic desensitization (Wolpe, 1954) is a form of counter-conditioning. In this method, a subject is gradually exposed to a fear hierarchy with relaxation and other pleasant stimuli present.

Chapter 4 - Applications

- Classical conditioning is frequently used in advertising. - Through imagery and/or music, smells, sounds, advertisers attempt to manipulate the emotions of consumers. - The goal is to make the consumer associate a specific emotion with their product. - For example: using humor in an ad, or using sex to sell a product. - Video of a TV ad for diet Coke: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZmBDeswu2dI

Chapter 4 - Learning
Researchers have found that young children and adults will begin to drool when they see the golden arches of McDonalds. - This is an excellent example of classical conditioning. - Can you break this example down into the basic elements (NS, UCS, UCR, CS, CR) ??

Chapter 4 Classical conditioning

Research by Shepherd Siegel indicates that many addicts have learned to associate stimuli or cues in the environment with getting high. Addicts can experience a high before they actually drink/smoke the substance they are addicted to. This is due to classical conditioning. Siegel found that heroin addicts can develop conditioned tolerance. How about students and learning? Are there certain cues in your environment that will help you to remember? This is State learning theory.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Aversion therapy. - Using classical conditioning to help someone break a habit or bad behavior. - Typically used to make a future behavior less appealing. - Examples: silver nitrate filters for cigarettes, bitter apple for nail biters, and antabuse (disulfurin) for alcoholics. - The drug antabuse alone has no effect. However, if it is mixed with alcohol, the person becomes immediately and violently ill. - Most students can relate to eating something that made them sick. How many of you have since eaten that same food? - New treatments look to give shots of drugs like antabuse that last 3 months and longer. Thoughts?

Applications of Classical Conditioning

In the classic movie A Clockwork Orange by Stanley Kubrick, the main character is trained through aversion therapy to associate nauseau with violent and/or sexual feelings. Thoughts? Is this something we should do to criminals?

Higher-order conditioning
Higher order conditioning: after a classically conditioned response has been acquired, the learner is taught to make a new association between the conditioned stimulus and a new and different neutral stimulus. Example: in Pavlovs study, after conditioning or learning to salivate in response to the bell, the dogs are taught to make a new association between the bell and a light. bell + light = salivation Eventually, the light alone will be able to cause the dogs to salivate. This is higher order conditioning. light = salivation The salivation response to the light will be weaker than the salivation response to the bell. Why?

Chapter 4 Review
1. 2. 3.

4.

5.
6.

A stimulus that does NOT cause a relevant reaction or response before conditioning A stimulus that causes an involuntary reflexive response A reaction or response that is not learned. It is innate or something you are born with. In Pavlovs study, what the bell is called after conditioning or learning takes place. In Pavlovs study, what is the meat powder referred to as? A type of classical conditioning where a second neutral stimulus is associated with a conditioned stimulus.

a. Conditioned

b.
c.

d.
e. f.

stimulus Conditioned response Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Neutral stimulus Higher order conditioning

Chapter 4 - Review
7. 8.

9.
10.

11.
12. 13.

14.

In the case of little Albert, before conditioning the rat was a(n) ___. Another way of saying after learning takes place is___. In the case of little Albert, the loud noise was the ____. Sweating in response to heat is a(n) ______. Classical conditioning involves ____ behavior. A reflex would be considered a(n) _____ behavior. The Golden Arches of McDonalds would be considered a(n) _____ before conditioning. Children drooling only upon sight of the golden arches of McDonalds would be a(n) ______.

a. b.

c.
d.

e.
f. g. h. i.

Unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus Neutral stimulus Conditioned response Unconditioned response Involuntary Voluntary Conditioned unconditioned

Operant Conditioning
Focus is on Voluntary behavior Behavior that is learned only NOT innate Consequences shape voluntary behavior Free-will is a myth Theorists: Skinner, Thorndike, Watson

Chapter 4 - Learning
Operant conditioning: learning to perform a voluntary behavior based upon the consequences behavior is voluntary. You must think about doing it beforehand. It is not innate or inborn.

Operant Conditioning
Example: raising your hand in class to answer a question. This is voluntary behavior. It is NOT reflexive or involuntary. You are not born with this ability, you have to learn how to do this [although the idea of this being innate in all my students makes me quite happy ] Whether or not you will raise your hand again in the future has to do with the consequences of your actions. Were you ridiculed? Did you get a bonus point??

Chapter 4 - Learning
B.F. Skinner is the most prominent figure in psychology who we associate with operant conditioning. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8956355585286146382&q=BF+Skinner There are two categories or types of consequences according to Skinner: 1. reinforcement 2. punishment

Reinforcement
Reinforcement: any consequence that increases the probability of a response in the future. Reinforcement can be used to shape many unusual behaviors in animals as well as people! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKZdpKP GvoA

Reinforcement types
Reinforcement= any consequence that you like. It is different for everyone. The trick to motivation is to figure out what each person likes and dislikes!
1. Positive reinforcement: a consequence that you like is added. Example: bonus points, stickers, candy, money, etc. 2. Negative reinforcement: a consequence that you dislike is taken away. Example: If you have an A average, you are exempt from the final and get an automatic A in the class. Other examples: Snooze alarms, taking aspirin for a headache, seatbelt buzzers in the car, etc. Can you think of more examples of each?

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Extinction: A response that is no longer reinforced is weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. Example: you put money into a soda machine, and nothing comes out. How many more dollars would you put into the machine before you stop? Spontaneous recovery: the sudden reappearance of a behavior after extinction has taken place. In the soda machine example, you might try again after several weeks of not using the machine.

Punishment
Punishment: any consequence that decreases the probability of a behavior in the future. - E.g., A consequence that you do not like. 1. positive punishment: something that you dont like is added. Examples: getting spanked, getting yelled at, etc. 2. negative punishment: something that you like is taken away. Examples: getting grounded, you cant use the car, the phone, the video games, time-out, etc. Can you think of more examples of each type of punishment?

Operant Conditioning
Skinner believed (punishment/reinforcement) is most effective when used with human beings? Which one do you think works better? What do you think Skinner believed? Why? Do you agree with him?

Operant Conditioning
- Skinner believed that reinforcement was significantly

more effective than punishment in shaping behavior. Why? 1. punishment tells the individual what not to do. No! No! No! No! This can lead to learned helplessness where the learner gives up trying. It can also lead to anger and frustration. Focus is on the negative. Lastly, the teacher is modeling aggression when angry. .

Operant Conditioning
2. reinforcement Tells the learner what they are doing correctly, or in what direction they should keep moving. This method is much more rewarding for both the teacher and the learner, and reinforcement continues to motivate future attempts on the part of the student. Focus is on the positive. Less likely to result in frustration and helplessness.

Punishment
Learned helplessness. (Seligman, 1965) - Dogs were divided into three groups. - 1. dogs were harnessed and no shocks were given - 2. dogs were harnessed and shocked, but were able to turn the shock off by pressing a lever. [Control] - 3. dogs were harnessed and shocked by yokedcontrol [according to group #2]. They were unable to turn off the shock. [NO Control] - The first and second group of dogs quickly recovered after the experiment. The third group however, suffered signs of clinical depression. They had learned to give up.

Punishment
Learned helplessness is the behavioral explanation for depression. According to behaviorism, depression is the result of an environment deprived of reinforcement and abundant in punishment. Signs of depression that connect to this explanation include: withdrawal, isolation, apathy, and feelings of helplessness

Punishment
If punishment is used [Skinner said as a last resort], it is most effective when it is administered: a. Consistently b. Immediately - and c. At a weak to moderate level of strength Punishment focuses on the negative or what you should NOT do. This can make it difficult for the learner to figure out what to do!!!

Operant conditioning
Mowrers two-factor theory of phobias. - 1. most phobias begin through classical conditioning - 2. phobias are maintained and reinforced through operant conditioning.

Statement: avoidance learning is really negative reinforcement. Who can explain this?

Operant Conditioning
For each of the following examples, see if you can first figure out if it is: reinforcement or punishment? and then is it positive or negative? 1. Losing car privileges for poor grades. 2. Being given $100 for every A in college. 3. Not having to do your paper because you got an A on the first test. 4. Being assigned an extra paper because the class was behaving badly.

Operant Conditioning
5. Getting a bonus point for answering a

question correctly [assuming you care about your grade] 6. Detention for misbehavior in school. 7. Spanking a child for misbehavior. 8. Not having to take out the garbage if you help clean up the dishes after dinner. [assume you dislike taking out the garbage].

Operant conditioning
9. Getting yelled at by your professor for talking in class. 10. Taking an aspirin to make your headache go away. 11. Hitting the snooze button on your alarm clock in the morning. 12. Getting grounded for a week by your parents because you didnt come home in time for curfew. 13. The naughty chair from Supernanny 14. A speeding ticket 15. frequent flier miles

Operant conditioning
When teaching an individual a new skill, it is best to use continuous reinforcement. This means reward the learner every time. Why would you do this? Partial reinforcement not every time. Why do you eventually want to switch to partial reinforcement? Shaping: the reinforcement of successive approximations or baby steps towards a targeted behavior. How would you teach a child to play baseball? Swing a bat?

Operant Conditioning
Discriminative stimulus: a type of learning where you learn to behave in a particular way during specific conditions in the environment. Example: What do you do at a red traffic light? a green or yellow light? How do we learn this? Back to the baseball example, when do you run to 2nd base? When do you slide? When should you swing at a pitch, and when should you wait? These are all examples of situations with discriminative stimuli that are learned through operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement. There are two main categories or types: a. Ratio schedules: depend upon the number of responses or behaviors that must occur between reinforcement. b. Interval schedules: depend upon the amount of time that must elapse between reinforcement.

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement

Both ratio and interval schedules can be either fixed [constant] or variable [changes]. Ratio schedules. Fixed ratio: the number of responses that must be made before reinforcement is given is fixed or constant. Example: every 5th time the rat presses the lever, he will get a food pellet. Variable ratio: the number of responses that must be made before reinforcement is given is variable or changes. Example: the first time the rat presses the lever, he gets a food pellet. The next 30 times, he doesnt get any food pellets. The 32nd time he gets a pellet. The next reward is given after 2000 presses.

Partial schedules of reinforcement

Can you think of some more real life examples of a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement? - Subway: buy 10 sandwiches, get 1 free - Dress Barn: buy 12 pantyhose, get 1 free Can you think of some more real life examples of a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement? - scratch-offs - slot machines - roulette wheel [vr38]

Partial schedules of reinforcement

Fixed interval. The amount of time that must elapse between reinforcement is fixed. - Examples: a weekly paycheck, weekends, a favorite TV show say Thursdays at 10pm. Can you think of some more examples? Variable interval. The amount of time that must elapse between reinforcement will vary or change. This schedule is the most resistant to extinction. - Examples: blue light sales at Kmart, the green light at KrispyKreme doughnuts, fishing. Can you think of some more examples?

Superstitious behavior
Reinforcement that appears to be non-contingent or dependent upon our behavior can lead to superstitious behavior. Which partial schedule of reinforcement would you be more likely to see superstitious behavior occur? During a ratio schedule or an interval schedule? Why? Go now and study these notes, but make sure to bring your lucky pen to the test!