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GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES Mechanical Methods

Dr. M. HAFEZ Soill88@gmail.com

Mechanical Methods

Compaction, Impact, Dynamic Vibro-flotation and Vibro-replacement Stone Column Explosives

A. MECHANICAL METHODS Choice of Method Purpose Compaction Shallow Surface Compaction Deep Compaction - Dynamic Consolidation - Vibro Compaction - Vibro replacement

CHOICE

OF METHOD - Type & degree of improvement required - Type of soil, geological structure - Cost - Available equipment - Time - Damage to adjacent structures - Durability (whole life considerations)

PURPOSE

- Increase shear strength - Reduce compressibility - Reduce liquefaction - Control swelling/ shrinkage - Prolong durability

1-Compaction
What is compaction?
A simple ground improvement technique, where the soil is densified through external compactive effort.
Compactive effort

+ water =

- to obtain the compaction curve and define the optimum water content and maximum dry density for a specific compactive effort.

Standard Proctor: 3 layers

hammer

Modified Proctor:
5 layers

25 blows per layer


2.7 kg hammer

25 blows per layer


4.9 kg hammer

300 mm drop

450 mm drop

1000 ml compaction mould


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Compaction - Procedure
1

2 4 5

Variation of Dry Density With Water

Dry density (d)

Soil grains densely packed - good strength and stiffness

d, max

- low permeability

optimum water content

Water content
10

Compaction Effect

Air
Water Solids
Loose soil

Air

Water Solids
Compacted soil

Dry density (d)

- corresponds to 100% saturation


Zero air void curve (S=100%)

S<100%

Gs w Eq : d 1 wGs

S>100% (impossible)
All compaction points should lie to the left of ZAV curve

Water content
12

Dry density (d)

Increasing compactive effort results in:


Lower

E2 (>E1)

optimum water content Higher maximum dry density

E1

Water content
13

Dry density (d)

more dispersed fabric

Higher water content or higher compactive effort gives more dispersed fabric.

more dispersed fabric

Water content
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Dry density (d)

Compaction curves for different efforts

Line of optimum

Water content
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Filed Compaction
Different types of rollers (clockwise from right):
Smooth-wheel roller Vibratory roller

Pneumatic rubber tired roller


Sheepsfoot roller

Compaction Advantages
As compaction increases, the following occurs:
Increase soil strength Increase bearing capacity Decrease potential for settlement Control undesirable volume changes Reduction in hydraulic conductivity

SHALLOW SURFACE COMPACTION


Top from left: Grid roller, vibratory plates, vibrating roller and pneumatic rubber roller.

Bottom from left: Smooth-wheeled roller, power rammer and sheepsfoot roller.

Field Compaction
Smooth Wheeled Roller

Compacts effectively only to 200-300 mm; therefore, place the soil in shallow layers (lifts)
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Field Compaction
Vibrating Plates

for compacting very MHll areas effective for granular soils


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Field Compaction
Sheepsfoot Roller

Provides kneading action; walks out after compaction Very effective on clays
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Field Compaction
Impact Roller

Provides deeper (2-3m) compaction. e.g., air field


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Type of Plant
Grid roller

Suitability

Unsuitable

Smooth-wheeled roller Well graded sand and gravels; Uniform sands; silty silts and clays of low plasticity. sands; soft clays.
Well graded sand and gravels; Uniform sands; silty soft rocks; stony cohesive sands; soft clays. soils Sands and gravels with more than 20 % fines; most fine grained soils Most coarse-grained and finegrained soils Sands and gravels with no fines; wet cohesive soils Soils with up to 12 15 % fines; confined areas. Trench backfill; work in small areas or where access is restricted. Very coarse-grained soils; gravels without fines. Very soft clay; soils of highly variable consistency Silts and clays; soils with 5 % or more fines; dry soils. Large-volume work Large-volume work

Sheepsfoot roller

Pneumatic-tyred roller

Vibrating roller

Vibrating plates Power rammer

Compaction Control Test


d

Compaction specifications Compare!


w

d,field = ? wfield = ?

compacted ground

Dynamic Compaction

Pounder (Tamper) Mass = 5-30 tonne Drop = 10-40 m

In-Situ Improvements
Dynamic Compaction

Dynamic Compaction
- pounding the ground by a heavy weight
Suitable for granular soils, land fills and karst terrain with sink holes. solution cavities in limestone

Pounder (Tamper)

Crater created by the impact (to be backfilled)

2-Dynamic Compaction
Existing surface or near surface soil is poor Repeatedly dropping heavy weight From high distance Wrecking ball or designed mass weight Typical weight range: 2 to 20 ton or higher Typical dropping distance: 10 to 40 meters Heavier the weight greater the dropping distance and greater the compaction effort

DEEP COMPACTION TECHNIQUES

Dynamic Compaction Applications - Reduce foundation settlements - Reduce seismic subsidence - Permit construction on fills - Densify garbage dumps - Improve mine spoils - Induce settlements in collapsible soils

Dynamic Compaction
Used for cohesive and cohesionless soils Compacting buried refuse Not done by dropping weight randomly Closely spaced grid pattern Preliminary work done to determine: Grid spacing Weight Height Number of drops (typ. 5 to 10 drops per grid point)

Dynamic Compaction
Applicable
Loose sands, fills, mine refuse, collapsible soil and sanitary landfills Up to depths of 40-feet Not typically used in urban areas 25-50 meters clearance to any structure GWT > 6 below grade or 2 below bottom of craters

Dynamic Compaction
Advantages
Relatively inexpensive

Disadvantages
Extremely invasive Multiple passes required / progressive consolidation Granular fill to stabilize loose surface soils Too many drops may cause adjacent heave Requires careful monitoring

Dynamic Compaction
Practical Considerations
Drops from 10-40 meters Weight 40(+) tons; shape doesnt matter Stratographic profiling for tamping pattern Max economic limit = 10 drops/location Requires horizontal pumps or drains Vibration sensitivity analysis recommended Crane Safety Program

Important Terms Effective Depth -- Maximum depth of ground improvement Zone of Major Densification -- About upper 2/3 of effective depth Energy Level -- Energy per blow (weight times drop height) Energy Intensity Factor -- Involves energy level, spacing, and number of blows

Typical Dynamic Compaction Program Involves Weights of 10 to 30 tons Drop heights of 17m to 35 m Impact grids of 2.5 x 2.5 m to 7.0 x 7.0 m

Important Dynamic Compaction Geotechnical Parameters * Soil conditions Groundwater level Relative density Degree of saturation Permeability

Important Dynamic Compaction Construction Conditions

Minimum 35-50 meters clearance from any structure Review site for vibration sensitivity

Applied Energy Requirements

Limitation

Suitability of Deposits for Dynamic Compaction

Dynamic Compaction Design Steps 1. Perform site investigation 2. Develop settlement influence diagrams 3. Develop initial Dynamic Compaction program 4. Develop numerical performance prediction 5. Develop QA/QC plans

Dynamic Compaction Performance Prediction Requires

Depth of influence of dynamic compaction

Dynamic Compaction Quality Control


Crater depths (map) Surface elevation monitoring Decrease in depth of weight penetration with successive drops Pore pressures Geophysical monitoring

Dynamic Compaction Acceptance Testing Large-Scale Load Test (where CPT & SPT are unreliable i.e. construction rubble and cobbles) Standard Penetration Test (SPT) Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) Pressuremeter Test (PMT) Dilatometer Test (DMT) Shear-Wave Velocity Profile

Explosive compaction

Dr/ M.HAFEZ Soil88@gmail.com

For densifying granular soils

Fireworks?

Aftermath of blasting

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A Ground Improvement Technique


First used in 1936 (unsuccessfully) Generally used to improve density of silty sandssandy gravels (non-cohesive soils) Makes use of dynamic/undrained loading conditions to cause liquefaction-induced settlement

The Mechanism
Sudden dynamic loading breaks cohesion and any cementation Shockwave temporarily liquefies soil layer Settlement occurs as Du 0 Typical vertical strain between 2% and 10%
(Narin Van Court, 1995; GeoDesign, 2002)

Principle
Detonation of the explosives in a predetermined pattern causes liquefaction, followed by the expulsion of pore water and subsequent densification of the ground (Mitchell, 1970). Gas and water escape to the surface forming sand boils, but cratering can be avoided by a suitable arrangement of the explosives.

Fireworks?

Aftermath of blasting
For densifying granular soils

Definition

* Explosion or blasting is the process of detonating small charges within loose cohesionless soils for the purpose of densification. * Used to modify loose sands, rock, special soils (increase density index to 0.7 0.8) (loess), (soils with open skeletons)

Action

shear stresses

breaks down soil structure reorientation of particles volumetric reduction (up to 10%) temp. high pore pressure liquifaction (@ use vertical drains)

saturated soil

Caution - do not cause local slips

A Basic Procedural Overview


1. Site Investigation 2. Survey 3. Drill, Set Charges, and Blast
The usual procedure for blasting is as follows: * Jet or otherwise install a pipe to the required depth * Home the explosive charge * Withdraw the pipe * Backfill the bale * Fire the charge.

1. Survey, Further Site Investigation 2. (Repeat 3, 4 if further settlement is required)

Why Blast?
Inexpensive Compare to remove/ replace or dynamic compaction, grouting, etc.

Improves soil at Maximum depth implemented: 40m depth Low impact to surroundings Controlled blasts leave nearby structures unaffected

Notable Field Applications


1936 Russian Railway 1940 Franklin Falls Dam, NH 1954-62 Karnafuli River, Kaptai, Bangladesh 1983 Jebba Dam, Niger River, Nigeria 1990s: Sakhalin Island, Russia 1990 Westover Airpark, Chicopee, MA 1992 Coldwater Creek, Mt. St. Helens, WA 2002 Westover AFB, Chicopee, MA

(Gandhi et al, 1999; Shakti, 2002; GeoDesign, 2002)

Three to five detonations are usual. Figure 1.0 illustrates ground settlement as a function of the number of charges, based on Prugh (1963), 000 also suggested that the first firing (marker 1) caused 50 per cent settlement, the second (marker 2) 25 per cent, the third 15 per cent, the fourth 5 per cent. Kummeneje and Eide (1961) contradict this opinion, finding that similar settlements occurred after each detonation (Figure 2.0). A typical firing pattern for pad footings is shown on Figure 3.0. To assist the densification process, a 1.0 m surcharge should be used in conjunction with the blasting, but the upper 1-2 m of the ground is not compacted and will require replacement and compaction in layers using a vibrating roller.

Mitchell (1970) suggested that piezometers should be used to monitor pore-water pressures during the blasting operations.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 1- Charges should be placed at approximately -3/4 of desired depth of compaction. ( 2/3 depth is suggested by Prugh, 1963)' 2- Spacing of detonation holes should be between 5-15 m. 3- Actual spacing determined following a test section. 4- Delayed blasting, not simultaneous 5- Number of coverages 2-3. Each covering consists of a number of individual charges. Successive coverages are separated by hours or days. 6- Individual charge 1-12 kg, the amount of total explosive is 89-150 g/m^3 of treated soil. 7- Soil closest to the surface will be poorly compacted and may need compaction by another method or removal. 8- The compaction resulting from blasting is a function of the initial relative density 9- surface settlement: 2-10 per cent of layer thickness 10- small amounts of liberated gas can cause much damping of the shock waves,

EXAMPLES

Charge 10 Kg TNT in 15m deep holes 16m c/c needed 100g of TNT per 1m3 of soil (Netherlands) 0.125 Kg of TNT per 1m3 decreased sand volume by 6% ; organic mud by 4% (mud at 18m depth) (Gdansk) Relative density index of sand (ID) increased 0.35 0.8 (took 2 months to consolidate) 7 Kg TNT in 3m deep boreholes 7m c/c 0.3m settlement (USSR) of 5m thick layer

Excess pore pressures & settlement are related to the ratio.

W 1/ 3 Nh R

Nh = Hopkins No. W = wt. of explosive (kg TNT) R = radial dist. of points of explosive m.

where Nh < 0.09 0.15 ;little or no liquefaction safe distance from explosion To treat a given thickness of soil, H, with single detonation with spacing of holes, S ; H3 W 0.055 1 .5 S = 2R = 2K3W

Values of K depend on grain size distribution and initial density

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