Marine Engineering / Coastal Engineering

INTRODUCTION
1.

General
a)

Since ancient times, water transportation has broadened humanity's horizons and has influenced profoundly the growth and development of civilization. Historians report that as early as 6000 BC, Egyptians had ships with masts and sails; and galleys were used in Nile River as early as 3000 BC.

INTRODUCTION
1.

General
b)

Early riverboats in USA were flat-bottomed (boxlike) and were propelled by sails and oars. These were oneway vessels, dependent entirely upon currents for propulsion, with only occasional guidance from their handlers. At the end of the journey, these were usually broken up and timber was sold out.

INTRODUCTION
1.

General
c)

The keelboat began to appear on the rivers at about the turn of the nineteenth century. It was a long narrow vessel, built to withstand many trips downstream and upstream. Keelboats were floated downstream with the currents under careful guidance. These were pulled upstream while walking along the bank or were literally pushed upstream with irontipped poles, which extended to the bottom of the river.

INTRODUCTION
1.

General
d)

The steamboat was invented in 1807. Colonel John Stevens demonstrated the feasibility of steamboat travel in the open sea in 1809. However sailing vessels continued to dominate sea transport until shortly before the American Civil War. Now a days, ships use diesel fuel and bulk of world trade is dependent on sea transportation.

INTRODUCTION
1.

General
e)

Water transportation possesses the most obvious merit of transporting bulky and heavy consignments cheaply. However it is very slow. River transportation in Pakistan is disorganized, very limited and localized without much government support. River Indus has the potential to be used as a means of mass transportation and feasibility exists thereto but no progress has been made in this regard. In Pakistan 93% of international goods traffic is carried by sea through congested ports and rest 7% by air and roads.

INTRODUCTION
2. Comparison with Other Modes a) Other modes of transportation i.e. road, rail and air have developed tremendously in the last century but sea transportation has experienced some setback. However its importance in no case can be reduced because of certain inherent advantages:i.

Unlike railways and roads, no special track is required to be built.

INTRODUCTION
2. Comparison with Other Modes
ii. iii.

iv.
v. vi.

Little motive power per unit load transportation is required. Possesses high load carrying capacity. Most economical mode for foreign trade. Provides powerful means of defense of coastline. Assists in industrialization and development of nations.

INTRODUCTION
2. Comparison with Other Modes b) The limitations are:i. ii.

iii.
iv.

Slow means of transportation. Subject to storms and hurricanes. Waves and tides hinder loading and unloading of ships. Fluctuations of water level causing rubbing of ships against berths.

INTRODUCTION
3. Terms in Connection with Ships
a) Load Line or Plimsoll mark.

A marking indicated on outside the merchant ship showing the water level up to which it can be loaded. b) Displacement Light. It is the weight of the ship without cargo, fuel and stores. c) Displacement Load. It is the weight of fully loaded ship with all contents and cargo up to plimsoll mark.

INTRODUCTION
3. Terms in Connection with Ships
d) Dead Weight Tonnage (DWT).

It is the difference between displacement load and displacement light. e) Gross Tonnage. It is the capacity of the ship expressed in volume measurement. f) Net Tonnage. It is the difference between the gross tonnage in volume measurement and space provided for crew and machinery.

INTRODUCTION
3. Terms in Connection with Ships
g) h)

i)
j) k)

Cargo Tonnage. It is measured in volume or tonnage, which forms the basis of freight charges. Beam. It is the width of vessel. Draft. It is the depth of keel of the ship below water level. Ballast. It is the weight added to increase draft of the ship after discharge of load. Hull. A hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure. The line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline.

INTRODUCTION
4. Terms in Connection with Ports and Harbors a) Harbor. It is partly enclosed, protected water area providing accommodation for vessels. b) Port. Port is that portion of a harbor which serves as base of commercial activity. Port is provided with marine terminal facilities such as landing of passengers, cargo storing etc.

INTRODUCTION
4. Terms in Connection with Ports and Harbors
c) Marine Terminal.

It is that part of port which provides docking/ berthing, cargo handling and storage facilities. d) Passenger Terminal. It is a place on a port where only passengers with luggage and miscellaneous small cargo is handled. e) Freight or Cargo Terminal. It is a place on a port where bulk cargo is handled.

INTRODUCTION
4. Terms in Connection with Ports and Harbors
Anchorage Area. It is a place within harbor where ships may be held in quarantine waiting for fair weather or docking/ berthing space etc. g) Turning Basin. It is water area inside a harbor to permit turning of ships, aided by tugs or free turning. Radius is generally twice the length of ships. At restricted space, ships may be turned using wrapping around technique. h) Fairway. It is open water with navigable depth.
f)

NATURAL PHENOMENA
1. Wind Wave / Sea Wave / Ocean Wave
Wind waves or, more precisely, wind-generated waves are surface waves that occur on the free surface of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and canals or even on small puddles and ponds. They usually result from the wind blowing over a vast enough stretch of water surface. Waves in the oceans can travel thousands of miles before reaching land. Wind waves range in size from small ripples to huge waves over 30 m high.

NATURAL PHENOMENA
1. Wind Wave / Sea Wave / Ocean Wave
Waves are one of the dominant phenomena that shape a coastline. These are in form of wrinkles and are produced by winds, tides, moving vessels (called wakes), earthquakes (Tsunamis) and explosions etc. Waves are largely responsible for beach erosion, long shore drift and elevated water levels. Waves transport energy from remote areas of the ocean to the coastline. When unleashed in the breaking process, this energy erodes beaches and can damage and destroy coastal structures such as seawalls, jetties and breakwaters.

NATURAL PHENOMENA
2. Tide
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. Tides are of two types: High Tide The water rises to its highest level. Low Tide The water reaches to its lowest level.

NATURAL PHENOMENA
2. Tide
It is difficult to navigate under excessively high tidal currents. Marine structure foundations are liable to be damaged; that is why massive structures like breakwaters are constructed. If the tidal range is small, gates and lock arrangements are not required at the entrances. For tidal range between 30 ft to 40 ft gates are required. Example is Liverpool harbor. At Karachi, tidal range is 12.7 ft. If the tidal range is large, the level is high during high tides and the large ships able to enter the harbor, while if gates are not provided, during low tide, draft is reduced.

NATURAL PHENOMENA
3. Currents
A current is a continuous, directed movement of ocean water generated by the forces acting upon this mean flow, such as breaking waves, wind, Coriolis effect, cabbeling, temperature and salinity differences and tides caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun. Depth contours, shoreline configurations and interaction with other currents influence a currents direction and strength. Knowledge of surface ocean currents is essential in reducing costs of shipping, since traveling with them reduces fuel costs.

NATURAL PHENOMENA
4. Longshore Drift / Littoral Drift
Change in the coastline is called littoral drift. It is a phenomenon in which there is always a constant change in the shoreline deposition of sand in one portion and removal at others. It is detrimental to the harbor as it may reduce the draft available to the ship at the entrance. It is one of the most complex and difficult problems faced by a coastal/marine engineer. The effect of breaking waves, especially when the waves approach the shoreline at an oblique angle cause Littoral Drift.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
1. Breakwaters
These are structures that reflect and dissipate the forces of wind-generated waves. They act as protective barriers to enclose harbors and to keep harbor water for safe anchorage and loading / unloading in comparatively calm water.

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2. Bulkhead
A bulkhead is not intended to resist the heavy waves but simply to serve as a retaining wall to prevent existing earth or fill from sliding into the sea.

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3. Wharf
This is the platform meant for loading and unloading of cargo and passengers. It is built into or onto water. Length is determined by the type of ships to be accommodated.

Wharf is classified as Quay when parallel to shore. Piers (Jetty) are wharves built at an angle to the shore usually at 90 degrees. Berths are provided on both sides of the pier.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
4. Groin
A groin is a rigid hydraulic structure built from an ocean shore that interrupts water flow and limits the movement of sediment. Groins create beaches, or avoid having them washed away by longshore drift. A groin's length and elevation, and the spacing between groins is determined according to local wave energy and beach slope.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
5. Fender
A fender is the form of a cushion provided on a pier face for ships to come in contact. Fenders absorb impact and protect them from damage. Fenders also protect ship paint from being damaged.

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6. Bollard
A bollard is a short vertical post used on a ship or a quay, principally for mooring.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
7. Navigational Aids
Once an aircraft approaches the runway, it requires terminal guidance; similarly captain of the ship is to be guided once harbor is approached. Various navigational aids include fixed navigational structure and floating navigational aids.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
7. Navigational Aids
A.

Fixed navigational structures:

Navigational Lights on Piers Light House Beacon Lights

B. Floating Navigational Aids

Buoy System
Light Ships

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
8. Approach Channel

Effort Never Dies