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Qualitative research...
its methods rely heavily on thick verbal descriptions of a particular social context being studied
questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices
a helpful process for exploring a complex research area about which little is known
Illuminates the
invisibility of everyday life by making the familiar strange, more examined, and better understood
Qualitative methods...
historical research ethnography case study ethology ethnomethodology
historical research
ethnography
case study
ethology
Ethno-methodology
studies how people make sense of their everyday activities in order to behave in socially accepted ways
Grounded theory
investigates how inductively-derived theory about phenomenon is grounded in the data of a particular setting
Phenomenology
Symbolic interaction
investigates how people construct meaning and shared perspectives by interacting with others
Action research
teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve the practitioners practice by doing or changing something
Generally speaking, qualitative researchers. spend a great deal of time in the settings being studied (fieldwork) rely on themselves as the main instrument of data collection (subjectivity; intersubjectivity) analyze data using interpretative lenses
employ expressive language and voice in descriptions and explanations seek depth of perspective through ongoing analysis (i.e., waves of data) judged in terms of believability, trustworthiness, coherence, and the logic underlying researchers interpretations
Uses inductive reasoning involves developing generalizations from a limited number of specific observations or experiences highly dependent on the number and representativeness of the specific observations used to make the generalization
a. gaining entry b. contacting potential research participants c. selecting participants d. enhancing validity and reducing bias e. leaving the field
a. gaining entry...
access is very much dependent upon the researchers personal characteristics and how others perceive the researcher may require considerable negotiation and compromise with a gatekeeper trust is earned, not given
b. contacting participants...
gaining access dealing with gatekeeper(s) issues of building trust and ensuring confidentiality and anonymity
c. selecting participants...
the goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied
is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied utilizes purposive sampling
types of purposive sampling maximum variation homogeneous critical case theory-based (dis)confirming case snowball (chain)
extreme (deviant) case typical case intensity politically important case random purposeful
two general guidelines: the number of participants is sufficient when the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting the point at which the data gathered begins to be redundant (data saturation)
include more participants to make the study more representative focus upon building participant trust in order to access more detailed and honest data
identify biases and preferences, seek them out by asking others work with another researcher and compare field notes and impressions from independent observations after observations are completed, offer participants an opportunity to validate accuracy of the verbatims
journalize ones own reflections, concerns, and uncertainties during the study and refer to them when examining the data carefully examine unusual or contradictory results for explanations (outliers)
utilize a variety of data sources to confirm one another to corroborate participant information (triangulation)
4. Synthesize and interpret the meanings of the field data 5. Write the research report
defines area of study identifies setting or context of study specifies the kinds of data to be collected
describes methods to be used provides the researchers rationale for undertaking the study identifies the studys potential contribution(s)
participation: as a participant (participant observer) or nonparticipant approach to participation: overt or covert requires experiencing the situation from the perspective of both an observer and a participant
primary tools include observations and interviews but can also include personal and official documents, photographs, recordings, drawings, emails, and informal conversations multiple data sources are normative
the researcher records descriptive as well as reflective notes about what one has seen, heard, experienced, and thought about a during an observation session
regarding field notes put aside assumptions, experience context first see phenomena through participants perspective write up notes immediately following an observation
detail is critical: include date, site, time, and topic on every set of field notes; leave wide margins for writing impressions; use only one side of a page of paper; draw diagram of site (if necessary) list key words first, then outline ones observations
keep the descriptive and reflective sections separate use memos to record hunches, questions and insights after each observation number the lines or paragraphs for easy access
regarding interviews the purpose is to explore and to probe the interviewees responses in order to gather in-depth data the interviewer inquires into the interviewees attitudes, interests, feelings, concerns, and values as these relate to the context being studied
meaning is jointly constructed between the interviewer and the interviewee; meaning is not just a construction on the part of the interviewee
be alert for openings in responses to probe more deeply, starting with mundane questions and gradually easing into more sensitive and more complex questions
interview data collection techniques include taking notes during the interview, writing notes after the interview, or tape recording and transcribing the interview (the transcript is a verbatim)
Do listen more and talk less Do follow up on what is not clear and probe more deeply into what is revealed Dont use leading questions; do use openended questions (probes) Dont interrupt; do wait
Do keep interviewee(s) focused Do ask for concrete details Do tolerate silence and space between interviewees responses; do allow the interviewee time to think Dont be judgmental about or react to an interviewees opinions, views, or beliefs
Dont engage in debate with an interviewee Do record everything the interviewee says and note impressions of interviewees nonverbal behavior
a formidable task because data are thick and deep as well as voluminous and unorganized (field notes) involves a systematic and iterative process of searching, categorizing, and integrating data (managing data)
understanding emerges as data are integrated
data pieces
c. classifying the data, including categorization, coding, and grouping into thematic units d. interpreting and synthesizing the organized data into general conclusions or understandings
Involves working with field notes deconstructing data into pieces reconstructing the data pieces into categories identifying patterns for understanding, synthesis, and interpretation
credibility or plausibility to demonstrate that the study was conducted in such a manner as to ensure that the subject was accurately identified and described
transferability to demonstrate that the results of the study are generalizable to others in the original research context or to contexts beyond the original study
including a methods section to provide an in-depth description of the processes and methods used in the study
constant comparison method compares new evidence to prior evidence to identify similarities and differences between observations
negative case and discrepant data methods the search for contradictory, variant, or disconfirming data within the body of data collected that provides an alternative perspective on an emerging category or pattern
analytic induction a process concerned with developing and testing a theory in order to generalize a studys findings
provide a setting where the data were collected identify characters who provide information describe the social action in which the characters are engaged offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters
offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters follow all APA Publication Manual guidelines