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Anabolism
Catabolism
Decomposes substances to provide energy cells need to function Catabolic Reactions- Require two essential ingredients:
1.oxygen 2.organic molecules broken down by intracellular enzymes:
e.g., carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
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Digestive Tract
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract or alimentary canal Is a muscular tube Extends from oral cavity to anus Passes through:
pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine anus
1. Ingestion:
occurs when materials enter digestive tract via the mouth crushing and shearing makes materials easier to propel along digestive tract
2. Mechanical processing:
3. Digestion:
is the chemical breakdown of food into small organic fragments for absorption by digestive epithelium
5. Absorption:
6. Excretion:
Bacteria
Is ingested with food or resides in digestive tract Attacked by macrophages, and immune system cells In lamina propria (underlying layer of areolar tissue)
Peritoneal Cavity
Is located within the abdominopelvic cavity Lined with serous membrane consisting of: superficial mesothelium covering a layer of areolar tissue Peritoneal Fluid-is produced by serous membrane lining Provides essential lubrication
Mesenteries
Figure 242a, b
Mesenteries
Figure 242c, d
Mesenteries (1)
Are double sheets of peritoneal membrane Suspend portions of digestive tract within peritoneal cavity by sheets of serous membrane:
that connect parietal peritoneum with visceral peritoneum
Mesenteries (2)
Areolar tissue between mesothelial surfaces:
provides an access route to and from the digestive tract for passage of blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels
Figure 243
Muscularis Mucosae
Narrow band of smooth muscle and elastic fibers in lamina propria Smooth muscle cells arranged in 2 concentric layers:inner layer encircles lumen (circular muscle)
outer layer contains muscle cells parallel to tract (longitudinal layer)
The Submucosa
Is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue Surrounds muscularis mucosae Has large blood vessels and lymphatic vessels May contain exocrine glands:
secrete buffers and enzymes into digestive tract
Involved in:
mechanical processing movement of materials along digestive tract
Peristalsis
Consists of waves of muscular contractions Moves a bolus along the length of the digestive tract-Bolus
is a small, oval mass of digestive contents
Figure 244
Peristaltic Motion
1. Circular muscles contract behind bolus:
while circular muscles ahead of bolus relax
Segmentation
Cycles of contraction:
Churn and fragment bolus mix contents with intestinal secretions
Neural Mechanisms
Control:
movement of materials along digestive tract secretory functions
Motor neurons:
control smooth muscle contraction and glandular secretion
Digestive Hormones
At least 18 hormones that affect:
most aspects of digestive function activities of other systems
Are peptides Are produced by enteroendocrine cells in digestive tract Reach target organs after distribution in bloodstream
Local Mechanisms
Prostaglandins, histamine, and other chemicals Released into interstitial fluid Affect adjacent cells within small segment of digestive tract Coordinating response to changing conditions:
e.g., variations in local pH, chemical, or physical stimuli
Figure 246
Mechanical processing:
through actions of teeth, tongue, and palatal surfaces
Lubrication:
mixing with mucus and salivary gland secretions
Limited digestion:
of carbohydrates and lipids
Oral Mucosa
Lining of oral cavity Has stratified squamous epithelium
Vestibule
Space between the cheeks (or lips) and the teeth Gingivae (Gums) Ridges of oral mucosa Surround base of each tooth on alveolar processes of maxillary bones and mandible The Oral Cavity Roof formed by hard and soft palates Tongue dominates the floor
Uvula
A dangling process Helps prevent food from entering pharynx prematurely Is supported by posterior margin of soft palate Tonsils Lies between palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches, on each side
The Tongue
Manipulates materials inside mouth May bring foods into oral cavity 4 Functions of the Tongue 1. Manipulation: 2. Mechanical processing:
compression, abrasion, and distortion assists in chewing prepares material for swallowing
4. Secretion:
mucins enzyme lingual lipase
Lingual Papillae has fine projections on superior surface (dorsum) of tongue which are covered in thick epithelium
Sublingual Glands
Small glands extend into underlying lamina propria Secretions flush tongues epithelium Contain water, mucins, and enzyme lingual lipase - Enzyme, works over broad pH range (3.06.0) Starts lipid digestion immediately
Figure 247
Salivary Glands
3 pairs secrete into oral cavity Each pair has distinctive cellular organization:
and produces saliva with different properties
Saliva
99.4% water 0.6% includes:
electrolytes (Na+, Cl, and HCO3) buffers glycoproteins (mucins)- Glycoproteins, responsible for lubricating action antibodies enzymes waste products
4 Functions of Saliva
1. Lubricating the mouth 2. Moistening and lubricating materials in the mouth 3. Dissolving chemicals that:
stimulate taste buds provide sensory information complex carbohydrates by enzyme salivary amylase (ptyalin or alpha-amylase) lipids by enzyme lingual lipase
Teeth
Figure 248
The Teeth
Tongue movements pass food across occlusal surfaces of teeth Chew (masticate) food Tooth Structure:
Dentin: a mineralized matrix similar to that of bone does not contain cells Pulp cavity: receives blood vessels and nerves through the root canal Root of each tooth sits in a bony socket (alveolus) A layer of cementum covers dentin of the root: providing protection and anchoring periodontal ligament
The Crown
Exposed portion of tooth Projects beyond soft tissue of gingiva Dentin covered by layer of enamel Gingival Sulcus is a shallow groove surrounding the neck of each tooth
Contain 4 types of teeth: 1. Incisors- Blade-shaped teeth Located at front of mouth Used for clipping or cutting, Have a single root 2. Cuspids (canines)-Conical Sharp ridgeline, Pointed tip Used for tearing or slashing, Have a single root 3.Bicuspids (premolars)-Flattened crowns Prominent ridges, Used to crush, mash, and grind, Have 1 or 2 roots 4. Molars-Very large, flat crowns With prominent ridges, Used for crushing and grinding, Have 3 or more roots
Dental Arches
Figure 249
Dental Succession
During embryonic development, 2 sets of teeth form:
Primary dentition or deciduous teeth Also called primary teeth, milk teeth, or baby teeth 20 temporary teeth of primary dentition 5 on each side of upper and lower jaws:
2 incisors,1 cuspid, 2 deciduous molars
Mastication
Also called chewing Food is forced from oral cavity to vestibule and back:
crossing and recrossing occlusal surfaces
Mastication muscles close the jaws Slide or rock lower jaw from side to side Chewing involves mandibular:
elevation and depression protraction and retraction medial and lateral movement
The Pharynx
A common passageway for solid food, liquids, and air Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Food passes through oropharynx and laryngopharynx to esophagus
The Esophagus
Figure 2410
The Esophagus
A hollow muscular tube About 25 cm long and 2 cm wide Conveys solid food and liquids to the stomach Begins posterior to cricoid cartilage Is innervated by fibers from the esophageal plexus
1. Mucosa contains:
3. Muscularis mucosae:
5. Muscularis externa:
has usual inner circular and outer longitudinal layers
Is also called deglutition Can be initiated voluntarily, Proceeds automatically Is divided in 3 phases: buccal phase-Compression of bolus against hard palate,
Retraction of tongue forces bolus into oropharynx: pharyngeal phase-Bolus contacts: arches and posterior pharyngeal wall esophageal phase- Contraction of pharyngeal muscles forces Figure 2411 bolus through entrance to esophagus Primary Peristaltic Waves
The Stomach
Figure 2412a
The Stomach
Figure 2412b
Anterior and posterior surfaces are smoothly rounded Shape and size vary:
from individual to individual from 1 meal to the next
Simple columnar epithelium lines all portions of stomach Epithelium is a secretory sheet: produces mucus that covers interior surface of Figure 2413 stomach
Gastric Pits
Are shallow depressions that open onto the gastric surface Mucous cells:
at base, or neck, of each gastric pit actively divide, replacing superficial cells
Chyme- Mixture of secretions and food in the stomach In fundus and body of stomach:
extend deep into underlying lamina propria
Each gastric pit communicates with several gastric glands Secretory cells in gastric glands:
parietal cells chief cells
Parietal and Chief CellsSecrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) Chief Cells are most abundant near base of gastric gland: secrete pepsinogen (inactive proenzyme)Is converted by HCl in the gastric lumen: to pepsin (active proteolytic enzyme)
Figure 2414
Pyloric Glands
Pyloric Glands in the pylorus:
produce mucous secretion
Table 241
Stomach contents:
become more fluid pH approaches 2.0 pepsin activity increases protein disassembly begins Although digestion occurs in the stomach, nutrients are not absorbed there
Pancreas:
digestive enzymes buffers Bile
Liver:
Bile is produced in liver Contains buffers and bile salts Stored in gallbladder Discharge into small intestine
Figure 2416
The Small Intestine plays key role in digestion and absorption of nutrient, 90% of nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine
The Duodenum The segment of small intestine closest to stomach 25 cm (10 in.) long Mixing bowl that receives:
chyme from stomach digestive secretions from pancreas and liver
The Jejunum
Is the middle segment of small intestine 2.5 meters (8.2 ft) long Is the location of most:
chemical digestion nutrient absorption
The Ileum
The final segment of small intestine 3.5 meters (11.48 ft) long
Intestinal Villi
A series of fingerlike projections:
in mucosa of small intestine
Covered by simple columnar epithelium:covered with microvilli Intestinal glands have goblet cells between columnar epithelial cells Eject mucins onto intestinal surfaces Brush Border Enzymes are integral membrane proteins ,on surfaces of intestinal microvilli Break down materials in contact with brush border by trypsinogen
Enteroendocrine Cells
Intestinal Secretions
Watery intestinal juice 1.8 liters per day enter intestinal lumen Moistens chyme Assists in buffering acids Keeps digestive enzymes and products of digestion in solution
Intestinal Movements
Chyme arrives in duodenum Weak peristaltic contractions move it slowly toward jejunum
Peristaltic Contractions
Myenteric reflexes,Not under CNS Parasympathetic stimulation:
accelerates local peristalsis and segmentation
The Pancreas
A compound tubuloalveolar gland
Lies posterior to stomach: from duodenum toward spleen Is bound to posterior wall of abdominal cavity Is wrapped in thin,
Figure 2418
Common Bile Duct from the liver and gallbladder meets pancreatic duct near duodenum Lobules of the Pancreas
Are separated by connective tissue partitions (septa) Contain blood vessels and tributaries of pancreatic ducts In each lobule:
ducts branch repeatedly end in blind pockets (pancreatic acini)
2. Exocrine cells: Pancreatic Secretions - 1000 ml (1 qt) pancreatic juice per day Controlled by hormones from duodenum Contain pancreatic enzymes
Pancreatic Enzymes
Pancreatic alpha-amylase:
a carbohydrase breaks down starches similar to salivary amylase
Pancreatic lipase:
breaks down complex lipids releases products (e.g., fatty acids) that are easily absorbed
Nucleases:
break down nucleic acids
Proteolytic enzymes:
break certain proteins apart proteases break large protein complexes peptidases break small peptides into amino acids
Proteolytic Enzymes
70% of all pancreatic enzyme production Secreted as inactive proenzymes Activated after reaching small intestine Trypsin- An active protease Enterokinase in duodenum:
converts trypsinogen to trypsin
The Liver
Is the largest visceral organ (1.5 kg) Lies in right hypochondriac and epigastric regions Extends to left hypochondriac and umbilical regions Performs essential metabolic and synthetic functions
Blood Leaving the Liver returns to systemic circuit Via hepatic veins:
which open into inferior vena cava
Liver Histology
Liver lobule is the basic functional units of the liver Each lobe is divided: by connective tissue into about 100,000 liver lobules about 1 mm diameter each
Figure 2420
Hepatocytes
In a liver lobule form a series of irregular plates arranged like wheel spokes Blood enters liver sinusoids:
from small branches of hepatic portal vein from hepatic artery proper
The Right and Left Hepatic Ducts Collect bile from all bile ducts of liver lobes Unite to form common hepatic duct which leaves the liver
Functions of Bile
Bile salts break droplets apart (emulsification):
increases surface area exposed to enzymatic attack creates tiny emulsion droplets coated with bile salts
Figure 2421
The Gallbladder
Is a pear-shaped, muscular sac Stores and concentrates bile prior to excretion into small intestine Is located in the fossa on the posterior surface of the livers right lobe Cystic duct extends from gallbladder Union with common hepatic duct forms common bile duct Stores bile Releases bile into duodenum:
only under stimulation of hormone cholecystokinin (CCK)
Without CCK
Hepatopancreatic sphincter remains closed Bile exiting liver in common hepatic duct cannot flow through common bile duct into duodenum Bile enters cystic duct:
is stored in gallbladder
CCK
Is released whenever chyme enters duodenum Relaxes hepatopancreatic sphincter Stimulates contractions in gallbladder:
pushes bile into small intestine
Gallstones
Are crystals of insoluble minerals and salts Form if bile is too concentrated Small stones may be flushed through bile duct and excreted
Figure 2422
Intestinal Hormones
Intestinal tract secretes peptide hormones with multiple effects:
in several regions of digestive tract in accessory glandular organs
Intestinal Absorption
It takes about 5 hours for materials to pass:
from duodenum to end of ileum
2. Colon: the largest portion, Has a larger diameter and thinner wall than small intestine The wall of the colon:
forms a series of pouches (haustra) which permit expansion and elongation of colon
The Appendix
Also called vermiform appendix Is a slender, hollow appendage (about 9 cm long) Is dominated by lymphoid nodules (a lymphoid organ) Is attached to posteromedial surface of cecum:
mesoappendix connects appendix to ileum and cecum
Is retroperitoneal, firmly attached to abdominal wall The Sigmoid Colon Is an S-shaped segment, about 15 cm long Starts at sigmoid flexure Lies posterior to urinary bladder Is suspended from sigmoid mesocolon Empties into rectum
Forms last 15 cm of digestive tract Is an expandable organ for temporary storage of feces Movement of fecal material into rectum triggers urge to defecate The Anal Canal Is the last portion of the rectum Contains small longitudinal folds called anal columns Anus or anal orifice is exit of the anal canal Has keratinized epidermis like skin
The Rectum
Anal Sphincters
Internal anal sphincter:
circular muscle layer of muscularis externa has smooth muscle cells, not under voluntary control
Absorption of vitamins produced by bacteriaorganic molecules Important as cofactors or coenzymes in metabolism Normal bacteria in colon make 3 vitamins that supplement diet Absorption of organic wastes
2. Biotin:
3. Pantothenic acid:
Organic Wastes
Bacteria convert bilirubin to urobilinogens and stercobilinogens:
urobilinogens absorbed into bloodstream are excreted in urine urobilinogens and stercobilinogens in colon convert to urobilins and stercobilins by exposure to oxygen
hydrogen sulfide:
gas that produces rotten egg odor
Movement from cecum to transverse colon is very slow: allowing hours for water absorption Peristaltic waves move material along length of colon Segmentation movements (haustral churning) mix contents of adjacent haustra
Elimination of Feces
Requires relaxation of internal and external anal sphincters Reflexes open internal sphincter, close external sphincter Opening external sphincter requires conscious effort
Essential Nutrients
A typical meal contains:
Carbohydrates, proteins Lipids, water Electrolytes, vitamins Digestive system handles each nutrient differently: large organic molecules:
must be digested before absorption can occur
Figure 2426
Processing Nutrients
Digestive Enzymes
Are secreted by:
salivary glands tongue stomach pancreas
Digestive Enzymes
Are divided into classes by targets:
carbohydrases:
break bonds between simple sugars
proteases:
break bonds between amino acids
lipases:
separate fatty acids from glycerides
Proceeds in 2 steps:
1. carbohydrases (from salivary glands and pancreas)-Function at pH 6.77.5: salivary amylase - From parotid and submandibular salivary glands, Breaks down starches (complex carbohydrates),Produces: disaccharides (2 simple sugars) trisaccharides (3 simple sugars) pancreatic alpha-amylase2. brush border enzymes- Fragment disaccharides and trisaccharides into monosaccharides (simple sugars):maltase splits maltose into 2 glucose
Absorption of Monosaccharides
Intestinal epithelium absorbs monosaccharides:
by facilitated diffusion and cotransport via a carrier protein
Facilitated diffusion:
moves only 1 molecule or ion through cell membrane, does not require ATP will not occur against opposing concentration gradient
Cotransport:
moves more than 1 molecule or ion at the same time transported materials move in same direction may require ATP to preserve cell homeostasis can occur against opposing concentration gradient
Lipid Digestion
Involves:
lingual lipase from glands of tongue-Begins triglycerides breakdown in mouth
Continues for limited time within stomach Digests 20% of lipids before chyme enters duodenum Bile salts improve chemical digestion:
by emulsifying lipid drops into tiny droplets providing better access for pancreatic lipase pancreatic lipase from pancreas-Break off 2 fatty acids, leaving monoglycerides ,Are water-soluble enzymes, Attack only exposed surfaces of lipid drops
Triglycerides
Are the most important and abundant dietary lipids Consist of 3 fatty acids attached to 1 molecule glycerol
Lipid Absorption
Intestinal cells synthesize new triglycerides from monoglycerides and fatty acids Triglycerides and other absorbed molecules are coated with proteins:
creating chylomicrons
Protein Digestion
Is complex and time-consuming:
mechanical processing in oral cavity (mastication) and chemical processing in stomach acid (HCl) allows proteolytic enzymes to attack proteins pepsin:
proteolytic enzyme works at pH 1.52.0 breaks peptide bonds within polypeptide chain
Table 244
Ion Absorption
Osmosis does not distinguish among solutes:
determined only by total concentration of solutes
To maintain homeostasis:
concentrations of specific ions must be regulated
Ion Absorption
Potassium ion concentration increases:
as other solutes move out of lumen
Other ions diffuse into epithelial cells along concentration gradient Cation absorption (magnesium, iron):
involves specific carrier proteins cell must use ATP to transport ions to interstitial fluid
Are organic compounds required in very small quantities Are divided in 2 major groups:
fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
Vitamins
All but 1 of water-soluble vitamins easily diffuse across digestive epithelium Vitamin B12- Cannot be absorbed by intestinal mucosa in normal amounts:
unless bound to intrinsic factor (glycoprotein secreted by parietal cells of stomach
3. Cumulative damage from toxins (alcohol, other chemicals) absorbed by digestive tract and transported to liver for processing
Figure 2428
SUMMARY (1 of 4)
Digestive system:
digestive tract accessory organs
SUMMARY (2 of 4)
Oral cavity Buccal cavity:
oral mucosa
Tongue:
intrinsic tongue muscles extrinsic tongue muscles
Small intestine:
SUMMARY (3 of 4)
Pancreas Liver:
bile
Large intestine:
cecum colon rectum
SUMMARY (4 of 4)
Processing and absorption of nutrients Carbohydrate digestion and absorption Lipid digestion and absorption Protein digestion and absorption Water absorption Ion absorption Vitamin absorption