Nuclear Fusion Powers the Universe

The Fusion Process

Neutron proton Two nuclei combine into one nucleus plus a nucleon is called nuclear fusion, a nuclear reaction. The picture here illustrates the fusion of
2D

Collision

+ 3T 4He + n

that releases a lot of energy.

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Nuclear Fusion Energy

ME amu 0.01 0.005 0.0
3

Variation of ME with A for Some Stable Nuclides

He

n H U

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He 12

0.005

Fe

Pb A

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The solar system

Solar system NASA
These links may move

Nuclear Fusion in Stars

Stars are giant fusion reactors.

E = mc2 1H, 2D 3T, 4He

Nuclear fusion reactions provide energy in the Sun and other stars. Solar energy drives the weather and makes plants grow.
Energy stored in plants sustains animal lives, ours included.

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Nuclear Fusion and the Sun

The birth of the 4.5e9 year old Sun Sun-Earth Distance (149,597,870.7 km or 8.3 light minutes) is an Astronomical Unit (AU). Alpha (A+B+proxima, Centauri triple star system nearest to the sun parallax angle of 0.76-arcsec) is 4.35-4.22 light years from the Sun. Sun Mass is 333,000 times that of the Earth. The sun is a big nuclear fusion reactor, 75% H and 25% He. Sun radius (695000 km) is 109 times that of the Earth (6.4e3 km).

Sun emits 3.861026 watts, ~ 8 kwatt/cm2, 0.14 watt/cm2 reach the earth atmosphere (solar constant).
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The Sun
Core: Radius = 0.25 Rsun T = 15 Million K Density = 150 g/cc Envelope: Radius = Rsun = 700,000 km T = 5800 K Density = 10-7 g

Life of Star: tug-of-war between Gravity & Pressure

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The Sun
The sun flare

The corona during an eclipse The aurora

corona during an eclipse

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The solar surface

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Effective Cross Section (mb) of Fusion Reactions

10000

Nuclear Fusion Cross Sections

Cross sections data from reactions studied using particles from cyclotron
7Li

1000

D + T 4He + n

100

D + D 3T + p

10

D + D 3He + n

1.

D + 3He 4He + p
0.1 10 20 30 40 50 60 60 keV

(p, n) 7Be 3T (p, n) 3He 1H (t, n) 3He 2D (d, n) 3He 2D (t, n) 4He 3T (d, n) 4He
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Nuclear Fusion Energy for D-T Fusion

Estimate the fusion energy for D + T 4He + n

Estimate the fusion energy Q

The mass excess (MeV) are given below every species. D + T 4He + n + Q 13.136 + 14.950 = 2.425 + 8.070 + Q Q = 17.6 MeV/fusion This amount is 3.5 MeV/amu compared to 0.8 MeV/amu for fission. Estimating Q is an important skill. Mass and mass excess can be used, the latter is usually given to unstable nuclides.
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Nuclear Fusion Energy for Fusion Reactions

Common fusion reactions and their Q values

D + D 4He + 23.85 MeV (hypothetical)

H + H D + + + n + 1.44 MeV D + T 4He + n + 17.6 MeV

D + 3He 4He + p + 18.4 MeV

D + D 3He + n + 3.3 MeV D + D 3T + p + 4.0 MeV

See Interactive Plasma Physics Education Fusion Experience : http:// ippex.pppl.gov/

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Nuclear Fusion and Plasma

D and T mixtures have to be heated to 10 million degrees. At these temperatures, the mixture is a plasma. A plasma is a macroscopically neutral collection of charged particles. Ions (bare nuclei) at high temperature have high kinetic energy and they approach each other within 1 fm, a distance strong force being effective to cause fusion.
Stars Plasmas

Fires

Neon lights
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Nuclear Fusion and Plasma Confinements

Three confinement methods

fd3.gif from ippex.pppl.gov/ippex/module_5/see_fsn.html Fusion

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Nuclear Fusion and Plasma - kinetic energy

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
Fraction
0.003 0.002

4 amu 50 K 4 amu 500 K

1000 2000 3000

Kinetic energies of particles in plasma follow the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution

0.001

Speed (m/s)

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Nuclear Fusion and Plasma - particle motion

Motion of Nuclei and Electrons in a Magnetic Field +

Charged particles avoid crossing magnetic lines.

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Nuclear Fusion using Magnetic Plasma Confinement

Magnetic Mirror Confinement Plasma
A Magnetic Bottle for Plasma Confinement

Magnetic lines

A plasma distorts magnetic field or bends magnetic lines.

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Nuclear Fusion using Tokamak

The Tokamak technology for plasma confinement in fusion

fd4.gif<=ippex.pppl.gov/ippex/module_5/see_fsn.html

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Nuclear Fusion using Magnetic Confinement

JET:The Joint European Torus Program Tokamak shapes like a donut confining the plasma in a circular motion inside the Tokamak.

PSFC: MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center

fd6.gif<=ippex.pppl.gov/ippex/module_5/see_fsn.html

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Nuclear Fusion Bombs

A thermonuclear Bomb consists of explosives, fission fuel, and D, T, and Li.

A thermonuclear bomb begins with the detonation of small quantities of conventional explosives. The explosion starts fissionable chain reaction that heats to 1e7 K to ignite a chain of fusion reactions.
2D

+ 3T 4He + n + 17.6 MeV

n + 6Li T + 4He ( = 942 b) n + 7Li T + 4He + n ( = 0.045 b)

A neutron bomb is a fusion bomb designed to release neutrons.

A cobalt bomb is a dirty bomb to kill using radioactive 60Co.
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Nuclear Fusion Energised the Cold War

During WW2, the USSR competed with UK and US for military superiority. The Cold War started.

Sept. 23, 1949, President Truman told the world about the Soviet explosion of A-bomb.
The US stepped up to develop the H-bomb.

1952, Nov. 1. US tested the first H-bomb at Enewetak

1953 the USSR tested an H-bomb Britain, France, and China also have tested H-bombs. The cold war was red hot until the former USSR disintegrated.
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H-bomb

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Nov. 1, 1952, the first Hbomb Mike tested, mushroom cloud was 8 miles across and 27 miles high;the canopy was 100 miles wide, 80 million tons of earth was vaporized. H-bomb exploded Mar. 1, 1954 at Bikini Atoll yielded 15 megatons and had a fireball 4 miles in diameter. 20 100 USSR H-bomb yields megatons.

Nuclear Fusion under Controlled Conditions

Humans had controlled fission chain reactions before testing bombs. 1952, Nov. 1. US tested the first H-bomb at Enewetak, controlled sustained fusion reactor has yet to be achieved. High temperature and high particle density for long period of time are the conditions for fusion. Magnetic and inertia confinements keep particle density high. Lawson criterion requires confinement time times particle density reach 1e20 s m-3. Fusion Links: http:// www. physics.auburn.edu/~plasma/fusion/fusion_lab/links.html
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Nuclear Fusion Research

Nuclear fusion research is costly, requiring an international effort. Plasma confinement by torus offers a hope for success.

1968, the USSR reported achieving 1.0e7 K in Tokamak, and and later reached 1.0e8 K in Tokamak fusion test reactor (TFTR).
Tokamak technology is used in JET and Princeton Large Torus.

Tokamak in the Soviet achieved 5e6 K and density 5e19 p m-3 for D plasma in 1996.
Strong magnetic field using superconductors is also used.

Laser heating frozen pellets in inertia confinement had some success.

Break even points have been reached in 1995.
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Fusion Research cont.

The Princeton Large Torus achieved 510 million K, before decommissioned Oct. 2002.

Simulations made possible by advances in parallel processing allow us to realistically visualize plasma behavior predicted by advanced models.
Improved heat retention achieved by plasma flow toward the outside, instead of flowing close to the center (theory and experiment). Shear flow pattern also made higher temperature possible. Understanding of plasma led to National Spherical Torus Experiment (NSTX) at PPPL, and perhaps other places. NSTX may achieve self-sustaining.
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Fusion Research cont.

In addition to optimizing the plasma configuration, future fusion research these are likely to include a burning (self-heated) plasma experiment, an engineering test facility, facilities for testing fusion materials and components, and then a demonstration plant, which would put net electricity onto the grid.

It may be possible to eliminate one step by combining the burning plasma experiment and engineering test facility into one device.
The spherical torus configuration, being developed through NSTX, may provide an excellent test bed for the development of materials and components for the demonstration power plant.
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Nuclear Fusion of Protons - hydrogen cycle

The Sun derives energy from fusion of protons. There are many possibilities, but two detailed cycles were proposed. The hydrogen cycle: H + H 2D (+e) + + + n 2D + H 3He + 3He + 3He 4He + 2 H net 4 H = 4He (+ 2e) + 2+ +2 + 2 n + 26.7 MeV

The carbon cycle will be described next.

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Nuclear Fusion of Protons - carbon cycle

The hydrogen cycle. The carbon cycle: 12C + H 13N + 13N 13C (+ e) + + + n 13C + H 14N + 14N + H 15O + 15O 15N (+ e) + + + n 15N + H 12C + 4He + net 4 H = 4He (+ 2e) + 2+ +4 + 2 n + 26.7 MeV (similar to the hydrogen cycle)
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Nuclear Fusion in Stars

Nuclear fusion reactions The hydrogen cycle The carbon cycle Others reactions 3He + 4He 7Be4 + 7Be + H 8B5 + 8B 8Be + + 8Be 2 4He + (major) 8Be + 4He 12C (minor) Additional reactions 12C + 4He 16O + 2.425 MeV 16O + 4He 20Ne + 4.73 Me 4He + 20Ne 24Mg + 9.31 MeV
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Life of a Star Condense mass Protostar Star (stable situation) Red Giant White Dwarf & Planetary Nebula Nova or Supernova Neutron Star or Black Hole

Nuclear Fusion Catalysed by Muons

Muons, m and m+ are 2nd generation leptons, 207 time the mass of electron, and holds 2 D 74/207 (= 0.35) pm apart. Frank and Sakharov independently suggested muons would help two deuterium nuclei to fuse. 2D 3He + n + 3.3 MeV 2 or 2D 3T + p + 4.0 MeV 2 Alvarez and colleagues suggested a muon catalysed reaction
2D1H

+m

3He

+m

with weak evidence.

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Nuclear Fusion and Electrolysis - cold fusion

Cold fusion refers to fusion reactions at room temperature.

Pons and Fleischmann electrolyzed a basic lithium oxide solution containing 0.1 mol of LiOD per litter of D2O solution, using palladium electrodes. Unexpected amount of heat destroyed their experiment equipments, and they claimed palladium catalyzed cold nuclear fusion.
Evidence was not sufficient, and no one else has reproduced the result yet.

Jones and co-workers also claimed cold fusion as energy source in the Earth interior.
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Fusion Research in U.S.A.

Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL).
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Alcator CMod. University of Wisconsin, HSX. University of Texas, Fusion Research Center.

Max Planck Institut fur Plasmaphysik, Wendelstein 7AS

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Fusion Research World Wide

UK: EFDA-JET, START, MAST Small Tight-Aspect Ratio Tokamak - operational at Culham from 1991 until
1998. This 'baby' tokamak was the first high temperature spherical tokamak

MAST - Mega Amp Spherical Tokamak - START's bigger brother (approximately

twice as big), now operating at Culham.

JAPAN: JT-60

RUSSIA: ?
CANADA: Canadian Fusion Fuels Technology Project (CFFTP) http:// epub.iaea.org/ fusion/public/ws97/node42.html

March 2002, bubble fusion was reported in Science, unconfirmed.

International collaboration called ITER expected to produce fusion energy at the rate ofFusion a commercial power plant by the year 2010

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Nuclear Fusion in Summary

Recognize possible fusion reactions Evaluate fusion energy for fusion reactions

Describe properties of plasma and principle of magnetic confinement

Discuss inertia and other confinements for fusion reaction Appreciate and anticipate difficulties in fusion experiments Understand weapons and their social and international impact Judge claims of fusion reaction and designs of fusion experiment

Develop an interest in fusion and keep up-to-date with fusion research

Fusion Timeline:
informationheadquarters.com/List_of_themed_timelines/nuclear_fusion.shtml Fusion
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