The Maxwell

Equations

ames Clerk Maxwell 1

June 13th 1831 – November 5th 1879)
… and God said:

1
∫SE ⋅ dA = ε0 Qenclosed Gauss’s law for E

d
∫ B ⋅ dl = µ 0 ∫ J ⋅ dA + µ 0ε0
C S ∫
dt S
E ⋅ dA Ampere’s law

displacement current, ID
d
∫CE ⋅ dl = − dt ∫SB ⋅ dA Faraday’s law

∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
Gauss’s law for B

… and there was light!

2
… and God said:

1
∇⋅E = ρ Gauss’s law for E
ε0
∂
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E Ampere’s law
∂t
∂
∇×E = − B Faraday’s law
∂t

∇⋅B = 0 Gauss’s law for B

3
… and there was light!
 1
∇⋅E = ρ Gauss’s law for E
ε0
– electric field diverges from charges

∂
∇×E = − B Faraday’s law
∂t
– E curls around the rate of change of B if B varies in time

∇⋅B = 0 Gauss’s law for B

– there are no magnetic monopoles, i.e., lines of B are

closed loops
∂
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E Ampere’s law
∂t
4
displacement current density, JD
 The Maxwell equations
in vacuum and
the displacement current

5
The Displacement Current
The Maxwell equations
∂
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×E = − B
∂t
∂ 1
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E ∇⋅E = ρ
∂t ε0
∂
Consider ∇ ⋅ ( ∇ × B ) = µ 0∇ ⋅ J + µ 0 ε 0∇ ⋅  E 
 ∂t 
∂ ∂
0 = µ 0∇ ⋅ J + µ 0 ( ε 0∇ ⋅ E ) = µ 0∇ ⋅ J + µ 0 ρ
∂t ∂t
∂
∴
ρ + ∇ ⋅ J = 0 continuity equation
∂t
This expresses the local conservation of electric charge –
the charge density ρ and current density J are all
functions of position x and time t: electric charge is 6
conserved throughout space.
Example 1 Charging a capacitor, Part 1.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor being charged by a
current I that flows in wires along the z axis:

Q( t ) − Q( t )

a a

By Gauss’s law, the electric field between the plates, i.e.,

for r < a, isσ( t ) Q( t ) ˆ ∂ Q ( t ) ˆ
E( t ) = ˆ
k= k J D ( t ) = ε 0 E( t ) = k
ε0 ε 0 πa 2
∂t ε 0 πa 2

∂
By Ampere’s law, ∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E 7
∂t
Example 1 Charging a capacitor, Part 1. (cont’)

B = Bφ ( r ) φˆ
The curl of B is in the z direction, and B is azimuthal:
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
( ∇ × B) r = Bz − Bφ = − Bφ = 0
r ∂φ ∂z ∂z
∂ ∂
( ∇ × B ) φ = Br − Bz = 0
∂z ∂r
1∂ 1 ∂ 1∂
( ∇ × B) z = ( )
rBφ − Br = ( rBφ )
r ∂r r ∂φ r ∂r
Consider the Amperian loop C1,
 ∂ 
∫S1 ( ∇ × B ) ⋅ dA = µ 0 ∫SJ1 ⋅ dA + µ 0ε0 ∫S1  ∂t E  ⋅ dA
 ∂  ˆ
∫CB1 ⋅ dl = µ 0 ∫SJ1 ⋅ kdA + µ0ε0 ∫S1  ∂t E  ⋅ kdA
ˆ

∂  ˆ
∫C1 ( B ⋅ φ)rdφ = µ 0 I + µ 0ε0 ∫S1  ∂t E  ⋅ kdA
ˆ  8
Example 1 Charging a capacitor, Part 1. (cont’)
In the quasistatic approximation,
µ I
Bφ ( r ) × 2πr = µ 0 I Bφ ( r ) = 0
2πr
Consider the Amperian loop C2,
 ∂ 
∫S2 ( ∇ × B ) ⋅ dA = µ0 ∫SJ2 ⋅ dA + µ0ε0 ∫S2  ∂t E  ⋅ dA
 Q ( t )  2 µ0 I
Bφ ( r ) × 2πr = µ 0 ε 0  2
πa = µ 0 I Bφ ( r ) =
 ε 0 πa  2πr
Consider the Amperian loop C3,

∫ ( ∇ × B ) ⋅ dA = µ 0 ∫SJ ⋅ dA + µ 0ε 0 ∫S  ∂ E  ⋅ dA
S3 3 3  ∂t 
 Q ( t )  2 µ 0 Ir
Bφ ( r ) × 2πr = µ 0 ε 0  2
πr Bφ ( r ) =
 ε 0 πa  2πa 2
9
Example 1 Charging a capacitor, Part 1. (cont’)

Consider the Amperian loop C,

∫ B ⋅ dl = ∫ ( ∇ × B ) ⋅ dA = µ ∫ ( J + J ) ⋅ dA = µ ∫ J ⋅ dA = µ I
C Sa
0
Sa
D 0
Sa
0

∫ B ⋅ dl = ∫ ( ∇ × B ) ⋅ dA = µ ∫ ( J + J ) ⋅ dA = µ ∫
C Sb
0
Sb
D 0
Sb
J D ⋅ dA = µ 0 I10
Scalar and vector potentials

11
Potential Functions
The Maxwell equations
∂
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×E = − B
∂t
∂ 1
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E ∇⋅E = ρ
∂t ε0
Any vector function whose divergence is 0 can be written
as the curl of another vector:
∇ ⋅ B = 0 ⇒ B = ∇ × A( x, t ) vector potential

∂ ∂  ∂ 
∇ × E = − B ⇒ ∇ × E = − ( ∇ × A ) = −∇ ×  A 
∂t ∂t  ∂t 
Any vector function whose curl is 0 can be written as the
gradient of a scalar function:
 ∂  ∂
∇ ×  E + A  = 0 ⇒ E + A = −∇ V ( x, t ) scalar12
 ∂t  ∂t potential
Potential Functions (cont’)
The Maxwell equations
∂∂
B =∇∇⋅ B
×A= (0x, t ) E = −∇
∇V× (Ex,=t )−− BA( x, t )
∂∂t t
∂ 1
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E ∇⋅E = ρ
∂t ε0
∂ ∂
∇ ⋅ E = −∇ 2V − ∇ ⋅  A  = − ( ∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ 2V = ρ
1
 ∂t  ∂t ε0
∂ ∂ 
∇ × B = ∇ × ∇ × A = ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ A = µ 0 J + µ 0 ε 0  − ∇V − A 
2

∂t  ∂t 
∂ ∂ 2
∇ µ 0 ε 0 V + ∇ ⋅ A  + µ 0 ε 0 2 A − ∇ 2 A = µ 0 J
 ∂t  ∂t
The electric and magnetic fields are physical quantities,
that could be measured, are uniquely determined if the
sources and boundary conditions are established. 13
Gauge Transformations and Gauge Invariance
The potentials A(x, t) and V (x, t) are not uniquely
determined by the charge and current sources in a
system.
Let f (x, t) be an arbitrary scalar function. Define
∂f
A ′ ≡ A + ∇f V′ ≡V −
∂t

Then, ∇ × A ′ = ∇ × A + ∇ × ∇f = ∇ × A = B

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂f ∂
− A ′ − ∇V ′ = − A − ∇f − ∇V + ∇ = − A − ∇V = E
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
B and E are invariant with respect to the gauge
transformation ∂f
A → A ′ ≡ A + ∇f V →V′ ≡V −
∂t

14
Gauge Choices and Equations for V and A

The Coulomb gauge ∇⋅A = 0

This gauge choice makes A unique:

A ′ ≡ A + ∇f ∇ ⋅ A′ = ∇ ⋅ A + ∇ 2 f = ∇ 2 f

∇ ⋅ A′ = 0
Demanding ∇2 f = 0
would mean requiring ∇f or
= constant

A′( ∞ ) = 0, A( ∞ ) = 0 ⇒ ∇f = 0

∂ 1
Imposing the Coulomb gauge, − ( ∇ ⋅ A) − ∇ V = ρ
2

∂t ε0
1
reduces to − ∇ 2
V = ρ Poisson’s equation
ε0
Recall the Green’s Function It follows that
of 1 1 ρ( x′, t ) d 3 x′
G ( x − x′) = V ( x, t ) = ∫ 15
–∇ :
2
4π x − x′ 4π ε0 x − x′
Gauge Choices and Equations for V and A (cont’)
The scalar potential is thus also uniquely determined,
except for an arbitrary additive constant.
Imposing the Coulomb gauge,
 ∂  ∂2
∇ µ 0 ε 0 V + ∇ ⋅ A  + µ 0 ε 0 2 A − ∇ 2 A = µ 0 J
 ∂t  ∂t
 ∂  ∂2
reduces to ∇ µ 0 ε 0 V  + µ 0 ε 0 2 A − ∇ 2 A = µ 0 J
 ∂t  ∂t
The vector potential A(x, t) will in general be complicated
if the sources vary in time. The Coulomb gauge is thus not
a convenient gauge choice for problems involving the
generation of radiation.
Remark – The scalar V ( x, t ) =
1 ρ( x ′, t ) d 3
x′
potential has an unphysical 4π ε0 ∫ x − x′
aspect:
It depends on the charge density ρ at all source points x’
at the very same time t. 16
Gauge Choices and Equations for V and A (cont’)
∂
The Lorentz gauge µ 0 ε 0 V + ∇ ⋅ A = 0
∂t
Imposing the Lorentz gauge,
∂ 1
− ( ∇ ⋅ A) − ∇ V = ρ
2

∂t ε0
∂ ∂ 2
∇ µ 0 ε 0 V + ∇ ⋅ A  + µ 0 ε 0 2 A − ∇ 2 A = µ 0 J
 ∂t  ∂t
reduce to
∂2 1 ∂2
µ 0ε 0 2 V − ∇ V = ρ
2
µ 0ε 0 2 A − ∇ 2 A = µ 0 J
∂t ε0 ∂t

17
Example 2 – V and A for a point charge at rest @ the
origin q
V ( x, t ) = A ( x, t ) = 0
4π ε0 r
∂ q
It follows that E = A( x, t ) − ∇V ( x, t ) = rˆ
∂t 4π ε0 r 2

B = ∇ × A( x, t ) = 0

Consider the gauge qt

f ( x, t ) =
transformation with 4π ε0 r
∂
V ′( x, t ) = V ( x, t ) − f ( x, t ) = 0
∂t
qt
A′( x, t ) = A( x, t ) + ∇f ( x, t ) = − rˆ
4π ε0 r 2

18
 Energy and momentum of
electromagnetic fields

ohn Henry Poynting 19

September 9th 1852 – March 30th 1914)
Poynting’s Theorem
The Maxwell equations
∂
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×E = − B
∂t
∂ 1
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E ∇⋅E = ρ
∂t ε0
Consider
 ∂  ∂  ∂ 
E ⋅ ∇ × B = Ei  ε ijk Bk  = ( εijk Ei Bk ) − Bk  εijk Ei 
 ∂x j  ∂x j  ∂x j 
∂
=− ( ε jik Ei Bk ) + Bk ε kji ∂ Ei
∂x j ∂x j
∂
= −∇ ⋅ ( E × B ) + B ⋅ ∇ × E = −∇ ⋅ ( E × B ) − B ⋅ B
∂t
∂
= µ 0E ⋅ J + µ 0ε 0E ⋅ E 20
∂t
Poynting’s Theorem (cont’)
∂ ∂
Therefore, − ∇ ⋅ ( E × B ) − B ⋅ B = µ 0 E ⋅ J + µ 0 ε 0 E ⋅ E
∂t ∂t
∂ 1 ∂ 1 
ε 0 E ⋅ E + B ⋅ B + ∇ ⋅  E × B  = −E ⋅ J
∂t µ 0 ∂t  µ0 
∂ 1 2 1 2 1 
 B + ε 0 E  + ∇ ⋅  E × B  = −E ⋅ J Poynting’s
∂t  2µ 0 2   µ0  theorem
This expresses the local conservation of energy – the
energy density u and Poynting vector (energy flux) S:
1 2 1 1
u= B + ε0 E 2
S = E× B
2µ 0 2 µ0
are all functions of position x and time t.

21
Poynting’s Theorem (cont’)
If a particle with charge q moves, then the change of its
kinetic energy K is equal to the work done on q:work-
dK = F ⋅ vdt = q( E + v × B ) ⋅ vdt = qE ⋅ vdt kinetic
energy
dK theorem
= qE ⋅ v
dt
For a general continuous distribution of charge, with
charge density ρ (x, t) and kinetic energy density uK(x, t),
the total kinetic energy in an infinitesimal volume d 3x at x
∂u K 3
satisfies ∂u K
( )
d x = ρd x E ⋅ v
3
= E ⋅ ( ρv ) = E ⋅ J
∂t ∂t

22
Example 3 Charging a capacitor, Part 2.

Q( t ) − Q( t )

a a

On the cylindrical surface of radius a that encloses the

volume between the plates
Q ˆ µ 0 I ˆ quasistatic
E= k B = φ
ε 0 πa 2
2πa approximation
The energy flux density on the surface is
1 QI ˆ ˆ QI
S = E × B = 2 3 k × φ = − 2 3 rˆ 23
µ0 2π ε 0 a 2π ε 0 a
Example 3 Charging a capacitor, Part 2. (cont’)
Field energy flows radially into the cylinder as Q
increases, i.e., when I > 0. The total rate at which field
energy flows into the cylinder
QI QId
P = 2 3 × 2πad =
2π ε 0 a π ε0 a 2

d Q d  d 1  Q 
2  2

=   =  ε 0 
2  2
 × πa d 
2

dt  2π ε0 a  dt  2  ε 0 πa  

=  ε 0 E 2 × πa 2 d  ≡ U E
d 1 d
dt  2  dt
Field energy flowing in through the surface builds up in
the field between the plates. The energy stored in a
capacitor resides in the electric field.

24
Example 3 Charging a capacitor, Part 2. (cont’)
Magnetic field energy between the plates is negligible
compared to UE: a 1
UM ≡ ∫ Bφ2 ( 2πrd ) dr
0 2µ
0
2
1 a µ 0 Ir  µ0 I 2d a 3 µ0 I 2d
= ∫   ( 2πrd ) dr = ∫ r dr =
2µ 0 0  2πa 2
4πa 0 4
16π
It follows that
U M µ 0 I 2 d 2π ε0 a 2 I 2a 2 1 I 2a 2
= × = µ 0ε 0 = 2
UE 16π 2
Q d 8Q 2
c 8Q 2
So, unless the characteristic time of the charging process
is comparable to the time for light to cross the radius of
the capacitor, UM << UE.
Remark – We must neglect UM to be consistent with the
quasistatic approximation.
25
Homework: Work through Example 4 @ Page 420
Field Momentum
The Maxwell equations
∂
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×E = − B
∂t
∂ 1
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E ∇⋅E = ρ
∂t ε0
Consider
F = q( E + v × B ) = ∫ ρ( E + v × B ) d 3 x = ∫ ( ρE + J × B ) d 3 x
V V

1 ∂ 
or f = ρE + J × B = ε 0 ( ∇ ⋅ E ) E +  ∇ × B − ε 0 E  × B
 µ0 ∂t 
1 ∂ ∂
= ε0 ( ∇ ⋅ E) E − B × ∇ × B − ε0 ( E × B ) + ε0E × B
µ0 ∂t ∂t
1 ∂
= ε0 ( ∇ ⋅ E) E − B × ∇ × B − ε0 ( E × B ) − ε0E × ∇ × E
µ0 ∂t 26
Field Momentum (cont’)
1 ∂
f = ε0 ( ∇ ⋅ E) E − B × ∇ × B − ε0 ( E × B ) − ε0E × ∇ × E
µ0 ∂t
1
= ε 0 [ ( ∇ ⋅ E ) E + ( E ⋅ ∇ ) E] + [ ( ∇ ⋅ B ) B + ( B ⋅ ∇ ) B ]
µ0
1 1 2 ∂
− ∇ ε 0 E +
2
B  − ε 0 ( E× B )
2 2µ 0  ∂t
since
 ∂  ∂
( B × ∇ × B ) i = εijk B j ( ∇ × B ) k = εijk B j  ε klm Bm  = ε kij ε klm B j Bm
 ∂xl  ∂xl
∂ ∂ ∂
( )
= δil δ jm − δim δ jl B j Bm = B j Bj − Bj Bi
∂xl ∂xi ∂x j
∂ 1 2 
∴ ( B × ∇ × B) i =  B  − ( B ⋅ ∇ ) Bi
∂xi  2  27
Field Momentum (cont’)
∂ ∂
f + ( µ 0 ε 0S ) = f + ε 0 ( E × B )
∂t ∂t
1 1 2 1
= −∇  ε 0 E +
2
B  + ε 0 [ ( ∇ ⋅ E ) E + ( E ⋅ ∇ ) E] + [ ( ∇ ⋅ B ) B + ( B ⋅ ∇ ) B]
2 2µ 0  µ0
The momentum density of the electromagnetic field is
dPem
= µ 0 ε 0S
dV
The angular momentum density of the electromagnetic
field is dL em dPem
= r× = µ 0 ε 0r × S
dV dV

28
Homework: Read Example 5 @ Page 422
 Electromagnetic waves
in vacuum

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz 29

February 22nd 1857 – January 1st 1894)
The Maxwell Equations in Vacuum
The Maxwell equations
∂
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×E = − B
∂t
∂ 1
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E ∇⋅E = ρ
∂t ε0
In vacuum, i.e., without any matter at all: ρ = 0 and J =
0; these reduce to ∂
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×E = − B
∂t
∂
∇ × B = µ 0ε 0 E ∇⋅E = 0
∂t
Note 1: There may be static fields in a region where ρ =
0 and
JNote
= 0,2:
produced by static charges
… electromagnetic waves and
… currents outside the
region. 30
Derivation of the Wave Equation
The Maxwell equations in vacuum
∂
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×E = − B
∂t
∂
∇ × B = µ 0ε 0 E ∇⋅E = 0
∂t
∂
Consider ∇×∇×E = − ∇×B
∂t
∂ 2
∇( ∇ ⋅ E ) − ∇ 2 E = −µ 0 ε 0 2 E
∂t
∂2
wave equation ∴ −µ 0 ε 0 2 E + ∇ 2 E = 0
∂t
One can similarly show that
∂2 1
wave equation − µ 0ε 0 2 B + ∇ 2B = 0 c= 31
∂t µ 0ε 0
The General Plane Wave Solution
A harmonic plane wave has definite values of wavelength
λ and frequency ν , related by λ ν = c. The wave fronts
of a plane wave are infinite planes, perpendicular to the
direction of propagation determined by the wave vector:
k = k x ˆi + k y ˆj + k z kˆ
The wave number
2π satisfies the dispersion ω
k =k = = λ ν= c
λ relation: k
phase
with ω = 2π ν
velocity
The most general linearly polarized harmonic plane wave:
B( x, t ) = B 0 exp[ i ( k ⋅ x − ωt ) ] E( x, t ) = E 0 exp[ i ( k ⋅ x − ωt ) ]

where B0 and E0 are constant vectors.

Note: The real parts are understood to be the physical32
fields.
The General Plane Wave Solution (cont’)
∂2
E satisfies the wave equation: − µ 0ε 0 2 E + ∇ 2E = 0
∂t
∂2
E ( x , t ) = − ω 2
E
∂t 2

 ∂ 2
∂ 2
∂ 2

∇ E( x, t ) =  2 + 2 + 2 E( x, t ) = −( k x2 + k y2 + k z2 ) E ≡ − k 2 E
2

 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
if the k = ω /c.
An Example of a Plane Wave Solution
B( x, t ) = B0 exp[ i ( kz − ωt ) ] ˆj E( x, t ) = E0 exp[ i ( kz − ωt ) ] ˆi

E0
where B0 =
c

33
The General Plane Wave Solution (cont’)
The Maxwell equations
∇⋅B = 0 ∇⋅E = 0

∂ ∂
∇ × B = µ 0ε 0 E ∇×E = − B
∂t ∂t

require k ⋅ B0 = 0 transverse wave k ⋅ E0 = 0

k × B 0 = −µ 0 ε 0 ω E 0 k × E 0 = ωB 0

E0 and B0 are perpendicular to each other, as well as

perpendicular to k, with E0 x B0 parallel to k. The energy
flux is in the direction of k: Poynting vector
1 1
S = E × B = E 0 × B 0 cos 2 ( k ⋅ x − ωt )
µ0 µ0 34
The General Plane Wave Solution (cont’)

k × B 0 = −µ 0 ε 0 ω E 0 k × E 0 = ωB 0

ω 1
kB0 = k × B 0 = − µ 0 ε 0 ωE 0 = 2 E0 ⇒ B0 = E0
c c
Note: How to treat complex waves
As long as we consider only expressions linear in the
fields we may delay taking the real part.
But before doing any calculation that is nonlinear in E and
B, we must first take the real part, reducing the fields 35
to
real numbers.
Homework: Work through Examples 6 & 7 @ Page 429
The Maxwell equations in
matter

36
… and God said:

11
∫SE∫SE⋅ d⋅ AdA==ε εQ0 Qenclosed -free
enclosed Gauss’s law for E

d
∫CB ⋅ dl = µ 0∫S∫SJJfree⋅ d⋅AdA+ µ+0µε0 εdt ∫SE ⋅ dA Ampere’s law
displacement current, ID
d
∫CE ⋅ dl = − dt ∫SB ⋅ dA Faraday’s law

∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
Gauss’s law for B

… and there was light!

37
… and God said:

∇ ⋅ D ≡ ∇ ⋅ ( εE ) = ρfree Gauss’s law for E

1  ∂ ∂
∇ × H ≡ ∇ ×  B  = J free + ( εE ) = J free + D
µ  ∂t ∂t
Ampere’s law

∂
∇×E = − B Faraday’s law
∂t

∇⋅B = 0 Gauss’s law for B

38
… and there was light!
Gauss’s Law
When dielectrics are present the source of E will include
bound charge ρ b as well as free charge ρ f:
1 1
Gauss’s law ∇ ⋅ E = ρ = ( ρf + ρ b )
ε0 ε0
The bound charge density ρ b describes the effect of
(atomic) electric dipoles as sources of electric field:
ρ b = −∇ ⋅ P

Here, P(x, t) is the polarization field or electric dipole

moment density in matter – the origin of the electric
dipoles is the separation of positive and negative charges
within atoms.
Gauss’s law ∇ ⋅ ( ε 0 E + P ) ≡ ∇ ⋅ D = ρf

Here, D(x, t) is the displacement field.

39
Polarization Current
The polarization current JP is the current associated with
change of electric polarization, which occurs when
positive charge shifts one way and negative charge
another:

Since matter is electrically neutral, ρ b and JP satisfy

∂
ρb + ∇ ⋅ J P = 0
∂t
∂ ∂ ∂
It follows ( − ∇ ⋅ P ) + ∇ ⋅ J P = ∇ ⋅  − P + J P  = 0

JP = P
that ∂t  ∂t  ∂40
t
Ampere’s Law
When matter is present the source of B will include bound
current Jb, polarization current JP and free current Jf; in
addition to ∂E/∂t:
Ampere’s law
∂ ∂
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 E = µ 0 ( J f + J b + J P ) + µ 0ε 0 E
∂t ∂t
The bound current density is an effective
current density equivalent to the (atomic) Jb = ∇ × M
magnetic dipoles from the magnetization:
Here, M(x, t) is the magnetization field or magnetic dipole
moment density of the matter – the origin of the magnetic
dipoles is the current associated with electron orbital
motion and spin.
Ampere’s law
1  ∂ ∂
∇ × H ≡ ∇ ×  B − M  = J f + ( ε0E + P ) = J f + D
  41
 µ0  ∂t ∂t
Linear Constitutive Equations
In many applications of electromagnetism in matter, the
polarization P is proportional to E
P = χeε 0E χ e = electric susceptibility

and the magnetization M is proportional to H

M = χmH χ m = magnetic susceptibility

For such linear materials, D and E (B and H) satisfy the

following constitutive equations:
D = ε 0 E + P = (1 + χ e ) ε 0 E ≡ εE

1
H ≡ B − M ⇒ B = µ 0 H + M = (1 + χ m ) µ 0 H ≡ µH
µ0
where the constant ε is the permittivity of the material, 42
and µ the permeability.
Boundary Conditions of Fields
The Maxwell equations in matter
∇⋅B = 0 ∇ ⋅ D = ρf

Consider the surface S separating two linear media, with

permittivity ε 1 and permeability µ 1 on one side of S, and
ε 2 and µ 2 on the other side.
δ
2
Dn 2 − Dn1 = σ f Bn 2 − Bn1 = 0
1 G

In the limit δ → 0,
(
∫ n 2 n1
D − D ) dA = ∫SD ⋅ d A = ∫V∇ ⋅ Dd 3
x = ∫V f x = Qenclosed-free = ∫ σf dA
ρ d 3

(
∫ n 2 n1
B − B ) dA = ∫SB ⋅ d A = ∫V∇ ⋅ B d 3
x=0 43
Boundary Conditions of Fields (cont’)
The Maxwell equations in matter
∂ ∂
∇ × H = Jf + D ∇×E = − B
∂t ∂t

2
δ
E t 2 − E t1 = 0 1
C
H t 2 − H t1 = K f × nˆ

In the limit δ → 0,
d
0 = − ∫ B ⋅ dA = ∫ ( ∇ × E ) ⋅ dA = ∫ E ⋅ dl = ∫ ( Et 2 − Et1 ) ⋅ dl
dt S S C

d
∫ ( K f × nˆ ) ⋅ dl + 0 = ∫S J f ⋅ dA + dt ∫SD ⋅ dA
= ∫ ( ∇ × H ) ⋅ dA = ∫ H ⋅ dl = ∫ ( H t 2 − H t1 ) ⋅ dl 44
S C