Learning Theories & Educational Philosophies

Just the tip of the iceberg EDER 671 Dr. Qing Li

Learning Theories

What is a theory? A theory

provides a general explanation for observations made over time, Explains and predicts behavior, Can never be established beyond all doubt May be modified Seldom has to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved.

(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)

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Brief overview of some learning theories

based on OCSLD (2002)

There are many different theories of learning. It is useful to consider their application to how your students learn and how you teach. It is important to think how you learn and realize that everyone does not learn the way you do.

Sensory Stimulation theory

Its premise is that effective learning occurs when the senses are stimulated. 75% knowledge held by adults is learned through seeing, 13% through hearing. Other senses- touch, smell & taste account for 12%. By stimulating the senses, particularly the visual sense, learning can be enhanced. If multi-senses are stimulated, greater learning takes place. How: through greater variety of colors, volume levels, strong statements, facts presented visually, use of variety of techniques and media.
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Reinforcement Theory

Skinner: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment. (details later) Note: much competency based training is based on this theory. Very useful in learning repetitive tasks, but higher order learning is not involved. Criticism too rigid and mechanical.

Holistic learning theory

Premise: the individual personality consists of many elements specifically the intellect, emotions, the body impulse (or desire), intuition and imagination that all require activation if learning is to be more effective

Facilitation theory (the humanist approach)

Carl Rogers, Premise: learning will occur by the educator acting as a facilitator, by establishing an atmosphere in which learners feel comfortable to consider new ideas and are not threatened by external factors. Believe that human beings have a natural eagerness to learn; There is some resistance to, and unpleasant consequences of, giving up what is currently held to be true; The most significant learning involves changing ones concept of oneself.
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Facilitation theory (2)

Teachers are:

Less protective of their constructs and beliefs than other teachers, More able to listen to learners, especially to their feelings, pay as much attention to their relationship with learners as to the content of the course Apt to accept feedback, both positive and negative and to use it as constructive insight into themselves and their behavior.
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Facilitation theory (3)

Learners

Are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning Provide much of the input for the learning which occurs through their insights and experiences Are encouraged to consider that the most valuable evaluation is self-evaluation and that learning needs to focus on factors that contribute to solving significant problems or achieving significant results.
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Experiential learning

Kolbs 4-stage learning process

The process can begin at any of the stages and is continuous (no limit to the # of cycles). Without reflection we would simply continue to repeat our mistakes.
Plan next steps, experimenting to find solution

Have an experience Review that experience

Conclude from that experience

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Action Learning

Links the world of learning with the world of action through a reflective process within collaborative learning groups- action learning sets. The sets meet regularly to work on individuals real life issues with the aim of learning with and from each other.

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Adult Learning (Andragogy)

Knowles: adult learning was special. adults:

Bring wealth experience to the learning environment should be used as a resource. expect to have a high degree of influence on what they are to be educated for, and how they are to be educated. Andragogy is: student-centered, experience-based, problem-oriented and collaborative very much in the spirit of the humanist approach to learning and education.

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Why bother?

Some reasons:

Learning theories permeate to all dimensions of educational technology. E.g. depending on the learners and situations, we design our instructional events (environments, systems, software) which would affect student learning. In ID, the designer must understand the strengths and weaknesses of each learning theory to optimize their use in appropriate instructional design strategy.
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Your reason?

Can you think of at least one good reason for us to learn all these theories? Can you use examples from your previous experience to explain your reasons?

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Objectivism vs. Constructivism

Based on Wilson (1997) & Roblyer (2003)

Current educational Goals and Methods: Two views

Directed instruction: grounded primarily in behaviorism and the information-processing branch of cognitive learning theories (acquisition metaphor). Constructivist instruction evolved from other branches of thinking in cognitive learning theory (participation metaphor).

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Philosophical foundations

Objectivist: knowledge has a separate, real existence of its own outside the human mind. Learning happens when this knowledge is transmitted to people and they store it in their minds. Constructivist: humans construct all knowledge in their minds by participating in certain experiences; learning occurs when one constructs both mechanisms for learning and her own unique version of the knowledge, colored by background, experiences, and aptitudes. A tree was falling off in the middle of a forest in BC and no body was around. Since nobody heard, did the falling tree make a noise?
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Methodological differences

Directed Teacher: transmitter of knowledge; expert source; director of skill/concept development through structured experiences Student: receive information; demonstrate competence; all students learn same material Curriculum: based on skill and knowledge hierarchies; skills taught one after the other in set sequence.

Constructivist Teacher: guide and facilitator as students construct their own knowledge; collaborative resource and assistant as students explore topics. Student: collaborate with other; develop competence; students may learn different material Curriculum: based on projects/problems, etc. that foster both higher and lower level skills concurrently.
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More methodological differences

Directed

Constructivist

Learning goals: stated in terms of mastery learning and behavioral competence in a scope and sequence Activities: lecture, demonstration, discussions, drill practice, seatwork, testing Assessment: written tests and development of products matched to objectives; all tests and products match set criteria; same measures for all students.

Learning goals: stated in terms of growth and increased ability to work independently and collaboratively. Activities: group projects, hands-on exploration, authentic tasks, product development Assessment: alternative assessment including performance assessment, portfolios; quality measured by rubrics and checklists; measures may differ among students.
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Theoretical Foundations: Directed

Behavioral theories: concentrate on immediately observable, thus, behavioral, changes in performance (tests) as indicators of learning.

Pavlov: conditioned response, behavior is largely controlled by involuntary physical responses to outside stimuli (e.g. dogs salivating at the sight of dog food).

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Behaviorist (Skinner, stimulus-response )

behavior is more controlled by the consequences of actions than by events preceding the action. A consequence is an outcome (stimulus) after the behavior influence future behaviors. (e.g. a child reasons she will get praise if she behaves well in school). Since internal learning processes cannot be seen directly, the focus is on cause-and effect relationships that can be established by observation. Human behavior can be shaped by contingencies of reinforcement: positive reinforcement increase in desired behavior from a stimulus (study hard- praise) Negative reinforcement -increase in desired behavior from avoiding or removing a stimulus (not finish assignment detention). Punishment decrease in undesirable behavior from undesirable consequences. (cheating failure)

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Theoretical Foundations: Directed (cont.)

Information Processing Theories: behaviorisms focus only on external directly observable indicators of learning, information-processing theory (first and most influential of the cognitive-learning theories) try to visualize what is impossible to observe directly. Human brain has 3 kinds of memories:

sensory registers--memory that receives all the information a person senses (1 second) Short-term (working) memory (5-20 seconds) Long-term memory (indefinitely).
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More directed: Gagnes Principles

Build on behaviorism and information-processing theories, Gagne translated principles from learning theories into practical instructional strategies. Events of instruction (9): to arrange optimal conditions of learning. 1. Gaining attention 2. Informing the learner of the objective 3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning 4. Presenting new material 5. Providing learning guidance 6. Eliciting performance 7. Formative assessment 8. Summative assessment 9. Enhancing retention and recall
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More Gagne

Types of learning: he identified types of learning as behaviors students demonstrate after acquiring knowledge. They differ according to the conditions necessary to foster them. He showed how the Events of Instruction would be carried out slightly different from one type of learning to another: 1. Intellectual skills

Problem solving Higher order rules Defined concepts Concrete concepts discriminations

2. 3. 4. 5.

Cognitive strategies Verbal information Motor skills attitudes

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Constructivism

The differences among those who think of themselves as constructivists makes it difficult to settle on a single definition. Theorists like Dewey, Vygotsky, Piaget, and Bruner are credited with fundamental premises of constructivism.

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Social constructivism

Dewey:

curriculum should arise from student interests Curriculum topics should be integrated, not isolated. Education is growth, rather than an end in itself. Learning occurs through its connection with life, rather than through participation in curriculum. Learning should be hands on and experience based, rather than abstract.
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Social constructivism (cont.)

Vygotsky:

Cognitive development is directly related to and based on social development. Zone of proximal development: difference between two levels of cognitive functioning (adult/expert and child/novice). Scaffolding: the assistance that an expert gives a novice to help him/her reach higher than would be possible by the novices efforts alone.
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Piaget: Cognitive development

1.

Childs 4 stages of cognitive development:

Sensorimoter (birth-2 yrs.) explore world through senses and motor activity. Cannot differentiate between self and environment (if they cannot see, it doesnt exist) Preoperational: (2-7) develop greater abilities to communicate via speech and to engage in symbolic activities (drawing object, play pretending and imaging). Concrete operational (7-11) increase in abstract reasoning ability and ability to generalize. Formal operations (12-15) can form and test hypotheses, organize information, reason scientifically, show results of abstract thinking in the form of symbolic materials.
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2.

3.

4.

Piaget (cont.)
Piagets basic assumptions: 1. Children are active and motivated learners 2. Childrens knowledge of the world becomes more integrated and organized over time 3. Children learn through the processes of assimilation and accommodation 4. Cognitive development depends on interaction with ones physical and social environment 5. The processes of equilibration (resolving disequilibrium) help to develop increasingly complex levels of thought 6. Cognitive development can occur only after certain genetically controlled neurological changes occur. 7. Cognitive development occurs in four qualitatively different stages.
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Bruner: Learning as discovery

Bruner also categorized childrens cognitive development stage: Enactive stage (0-3) Iconic stage (3-8) Symbolic stage (8-) Discovery learning: an approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments. However, teachers found that discovery learning is most successful when student have prerequisite knowledge and undergo some structured experiences.

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Gardner: Multiple intelligences

Of all theories embraced by constructivists, Gardner is the only one that attempt to define the role of intelligence in learning. Types of intelligence:
Linguistic; Musical; Logical-mathematical; Spatial; Bodily-kinesthetic; Intrapersonal; Interpersonal; Naturalist.

Educational implication: teachers need to try to determine which types of intelligence each student has and direct the student to learning activities that capitalize on these innate abilities.
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Constructivism (claims)
1.

Constructivism is more a philosophy (i.e. way of seeing the world), not a set of strategies.

The nature of reality mental representations have real ontological status just as the world out there does. Or, reality is more in the mind of the knower, the knower constructs (interprets) a reality based upon his/her apperceptions. The nature of knowledge it is individually constructed; its inside peoples minds, not out there.
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Constructivism (cont.)

Human interaction we rely on shared or negotiated meanings, better thought of as cooperative than authoritative or manipulative in nature. The nature of science-it is a meaning making activity with the biases and filters accompanying any human activity.

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Philosophy or Rules?

If we see the world in constructivist terms, we go about our jobs in a different way. But this difference cannot be reduced to a discrete set of rules or techniques. Too often, constructivism is equated with low structure and permissiveness-imposing predefined learning goals or a learning method is somehow interfering with students construction of meaning. This maybe true in extreme cases.
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One example

Scott, a teacher, who holds definitely constructivistic and anti-authoritarian philosophy wrote in journal: Third hour composition I went to a seating chart, the first time Ive done that here. I caught them as they came in and told them where to sit. Great improvement! Everyone working hard on their papersI sense that students are relieved that Ive imposed more structure. Imposing a seating chart is a clear act of asserting authoritative control and imposing structure. Is Scott betraying his principles, or can an ostensibly objectivist instructional technique actually serve his constructivist learning and teaching goals? The students answer clearly indicate that they view it as supporting their own learning goals.
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Creativity vs. Discipline

Yet to help students become creative, some kind of discipline and structure must be provided. Creativity arises out of the tension between spontaneity and limitations, the latter (like river banks) forcing the spontaneity into the various forms which are essential to the work of art The significance of limits in art is seen most clearly when we consider the question of form. Form provides the essential boundaries and structure for the creative act (Laurel, 1991, p.101). The point is that a given instructional strategy takes on meaning as it is used, in a particular context.
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Holistic way of observing

Hence, instructional strategies that impose structures may actually help students knowledge construction. One instructional strategy cannot tell whether it hinders or serves constructivist learning goals, rather the entire situation needs to be examined to make the judgments.

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Constructivism (more claims)

2. You do not have to be a philosopher to take a position. 3. Basically, nobody admits to be an objectivism.

Objectivism is primarily a pejorative label given by constructivists to the offending others. Realists (other name) believe there is a reality exists, and the quality of mental representations can be judged by their correspondence to the reality (another hotly debated issue).
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What is your take on?

There are many different interpretations of constructivism. An example: a Florida politician's position on a county option to permit the sale of liquor: if by whiskey, you mean the water of life that cheers mens souls, that smoothes out the tensions of the day, that gives gentle perspective to ones view of life, then put my name on the list of the fervent wets. If by whiskey, you mean the devils brew that rends families, destroys careers and ruins ones ability to work, then count me in the ranks of the dries.
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Constructivism (still more claimswould it end? :)

Neither side is right. Mind is not a box that inside the box are reflections of what lies outside. The starting point is recognizing that we simply are in the world, working, acting and doing things. Hence individual cognition is dethroned as the center of the universe and placed back into the context of being par of the world.
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Debate

Prepare a debate on the benefits of using directed vs. constructivist models for teaching and learning. Each group should gather evidence to support arguments on one of the following aspects of one of the models: real, practice problems they address; the soundness of their underlying theories; the usefulness in preparing students for future education and work. (6 groups total). Conduct the debate in class.

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Bibliography

Dorin, H., Demmin, P., Gabel, D. (1990). Chemistry: The study of matter. (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. OCSLD: The oxford centre for Staff and Learning Development. http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/theories.html [09/18/2003] Roblyer, M., & Edwards, J. (2000). Integrating educational technology into teaching (2 ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Wilson, B. (1997). Reflections on constructivism and instructional design. In C. Dills & A. Romiszowski (Eds.), Instructional development paradigms. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publish. http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/construct.html [09/18/2003]

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