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1
Neurons: The Basic Elements of
Behavior
Learning Outcomes
Explain the structure of a neuron
Describe how neurons fire
Summarize how messages travel from one neuron
to another
Identify neurotransmitters

The Structure of the Neuron
Neurons: nerve cells; the
basic elements of the
nervous system
Dendrites: fibers that receive
electrical messages (impulses)
from other neurons
Axon: long extension that carries
messages to other neurons
Myelin sheath: a protective
coating of fat and protein that
wraps around the axon.


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How Neurons Fire
All-or-none law
The rule that neurons
are either on or off.
Action potential
An electric nerve
impulse that travels
through a neuron when
it is set off by a trigger,
changing the neurons
charge from negative to
positive.



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Sending information
Ions
Chemical particles that have electrical charges
Sodium (NA+)
Protein ions (-)

Action potential
A tiny electric current that is generated when the positive sodium
ions rush inside the axon. This causes the charge inside the cell
to become positive
Where Neurons Connect to One
Another: Bridging the Gap
Synapse: the space
between two neurons
where the axon of the
sending neuron
communicates with the
dendrites of the receiving
neuron with chemical
messages
Neurotransmitters: the
chemical messengers
received at dendrites or cell
body of receiving neuron
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Where Neurons Connect to One
Another
Excitatory messages make
it more likely that a
receiving neuron will fire
and an action potential will
travel down its axon.

Inhibitory messages do just
the opposite; they provide
chemical information that
prevents or decreases the
likelihood that the receiving
neuron will fire.


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Neurotransmitters: Multitalented
Chemical Couriers
Acetylcholine (ACh):
messages related to muscle
movement, memory, &
cognitive functions; may be
related to Alzheimers
Dopamine (DA): messages
related to movement,
attention, & learning;
related to Parkinsons &
possibly schizophrenia
Glutamate plays a role in
metabolism.
Gamma-amino butyric acid
(GABA) moderates behaviors
from eating to aggression. It
acts as a natural calming and
anti-epileptic agent in the
brain.
Serotonin is associated with
the regulation of sleep, eating,
mood, and pain. It plays a key
role in the treatment of
depression.
Endorphins are involved in the
brains effort to deal with pain
and elevate mood.

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Types of Neurons
Sensory (afferent) neurons
transmit information from the
perimeter of the body to the
central nervous system.
Motor (efferent) neurons
communicate information
from the nervous system to
muscles and glands.
Interneurons connect sensory
and motor neurons and carry
messages between the two.

Reflexes are automatic,
involuntary responses to
incoming stimuli

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The Nervous System
Nervous System
Central Nervous
System (neurons)
Peripheral Nervous
System (nerves)
Brain Spinal Cord
Autonomic NS
(Involuntary)
Somatic NS
(Voluntary)
Sympathetic
(alert)
Parasympathetic
(relaxed)
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The Nervous System
Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
Reflex: automatic response to a stimulus;
controlled by the spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system: all parts of the
nervous system other than the brain and
spinal cord

The Nervous System (cont.)
Somatic division:
voluntary movements &
communication with
sense organs
Autonomic division:
involuntary functions of
the body that keep you
alive
- Sympathetic (alert mode)
- Parasympathetic (relax
mode)
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Studying the Brains Structure and
Functions: Spying on the Brain
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Positron emission tomography (PET) scan
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI)
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
The Central Core: Our Old Brain
Central core: controls
basic functioning
Hindbrain:
medulla (breathing and
heartbeat)
pons (integrates
movement between right
and left side of the body,
regulates sleep)
cerebellum (controls
bodily balance)

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Midbrain
Midbrain into forebrain:
reticular formation (can
immediately activate other
parts of the brain to
produce arousal)
thalamus (relay station for
information about the
senses)
hypothalamus (maintains
homeostasis and regulates
vital, survival behavior)

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The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core
Limbic system: control
a variety of basic
functions relating to
emotion, learning,
memory, pleasure, and
self-preservation (ex.,
eating, aggression,
reproduction); includes
the amygdala and
hippocampus
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The Cerebral Cortex: Our New Brain
Cerebral cortex
contains four lobes
responsible for the most
sophisticated
information processing
in the brain.
Its convoluted shape
provides more room for
the integration of
neurons, allowing
sophisticated
information processing.


The Cerebral Cortex: Our New Brain
Four Lobes:
1. Frontal lobe concerned with
reasoning, planning, parts of speech
and movement (motor cortex),
emotions and problem-solving.
2. The parietal lobe concerned with
perception of stimuli related to
touch, pressure, temperature and
pain.
3. The temporal lobe - concerned with
perception and recognition of
hearing (auditory stimuli) and
memory.
4. The occipital lobe concerned with
vision.

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The Cerebral Cortex: Our New Brain
Motor area
Voluntary movement of the body
Sensory area
Site of the brain that corresponds to
each of the senses
Association areas
Sites of higher mental processes,
such as thought, language,
memory, and speech.
They make up a large portion of the
cerebral cortex and control
executive functions - planning,
goal setting, judgment, and
impulse control.


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Association
Motor
Sensory
Sensory area
for impulses
from eyes
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Neuroplasticity and the Brain
Neuroplasticity: changes in the brain over the
lifespan having to do with the addition of new
neurons (neurogenesis), new interconnections
between neurons, and the reorganization of
information-processing areas

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The Specialization of the Hemispheres:
Two Brains or One?
Hemispheres: left and right halves of the brain; each
controls motion and sensation in the opposite side of
the body (right brain and left brain)
Lateralization: dominance of one hemisphere in
specific functions


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Hemispheres of the Brain
Left brain
Verbal - thinks in terms of
words
Mathematical, analytic
Processes information
sequentially
Right brain
Nonverbal - thinks in terms
of images
Spatial, holistic, emotional
Processes information
globally
Corpus callosum
Band of nerve fibers that
connect the two hemispheres

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