Operational Amplifiers

Agenda
Introduction
Background
Amplifier Introduction
Basic Circuits Review
Characteristics of an Ideal Op Amp
Types of Op Amps
Practical Applications
Conclusion
Quiz
Introduction
Operational Amplifiers are represented both
schematically and realistically below:
Active component!
Background
Originally invented in early 1940s using vacuum tube
technology
Initial purpose was to execute math operations in analog
electronic calculating machines
Shrunk in size with invention of transistor
Most now made on integrated circuit (IC)
Only most demanding applications use discrete components
Huge variety of applications, low cost, and ease of
mass production make them extremely popular
Amplifiers
Differential Amplifier
Amplifies difference
between inputs
Single-ended Amplifier
Operational Amplifier
Output gain high
A ~= 10
6

Tiny difference in the input
voltages result in a very
large output voltage
Output limited by supply
voltages
Comparator
If V
+
>V
-
, V
out
= HVS
If V
+
<V
-
, V
out
= LVS
If V
+
=V
-
, V
out
= 0V
3-stage Op-Amp
Why are they useful?
Sensor signals are often too weak or too noisy
Op Amps ideally increase the signal amplitude
without affecting its other properties
Why are they useful?
Negative feedback leads to stable equilibrium
Voltage follower (direct feedback)
If Vout = V- , then Vout ~ V+
Closed Loop Transfer Function
H(s) = A / (1 + AF)
When AF >> 1
H(s) = 1 / F
Where: A = Op Amp Open Loop Gain
F = Feedback Loop Gain
1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the
voltage difference between the inputs zero.
2. The inputs draw no current.
Basic Circuits Review
Kirchoffs Law
Voltage Law: The sum of
all the voltage drops
around the loop = V
in

Resistance (Ohms )
Series

Parallel

V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
= V
in
Basic Circuits Review
Capacitance (Farad F)
Series

Parallel

Inductance (Henry H)
Series

Parallel

Ideal Op Amp
Z
in
is infinite
Z
out
is zero
Amplification (Gain) V
out
/ V
in
=
Unlimited bandwidth
V
out
= 0 when Voltage inputs = 0

Ideal Op Amp
Ideal Op-Amp Typical Op-Amp
Input Resistance infinity 10
6
(bipolar)
10
9
- 10
12
(FET)
Input Current 0 10
-12
10
-8
A
Output Resistance 0 100 1000
Operational Gain infinity 10
5
- 10
9
Common Mode Gain 0 10
-5
Bandwidth infinity Attenuates and phases at high
frequencies (depends on slew
rate)
Temperature independent Bandwidth and gain
How are Op-Amps used?
Comparator (seen earlier)
Voltage follower (seen earlier)
Signal Modulation
Mathematical Operations
Filters
Voltage-Current signal conversion
Non-inverting Op-Amp

Uses: Amplifystraight up
www.wikipedia.org
Inverting Op-Amp



Uses: Analog inverter
www.wikipedia.org
Comparator
www.allaboutcircuits.com
Uses: Low-voltage alarms,
night light controller
V
2
V
1
V
out
Pulse Width Modulator
Output changes when
V
in
~= V
pot
Potentiometer used to vary duty cycle

www.allaboutcircuits.com
Uses: Motor controllers
Summation
Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs
until a threshold is reached.
www.wikipedia.org
Difference

1
3 1
1 2 4
4 1 3 2
) ( R
R V
R R R
R R R V
V
out

1 2
V V V
out

If all resistors are equal:
Integrating Op-Amp
Uses: PID Controller
www.wikipedia.org
Differentiating Op-Amp
(where V
in
and V
out
are functions of time)
www.wikipedia.org
Filters
Decouple the low-pass RC
filter from the load.




Uses: Simple audio.
Remove frequencies over
20kHz (audible)
Low-pass Filter (active)
Cutoff frequency


This works
because the
capacitor needs
time to charge.
www.wikipedia.org
High pass filter (active)
Band-pass filter cascades both high-pass and low-pass!
www.wikipedia.org
Measuring current
Current (I) better than voltage (V) for measurement
Voltage suffers losses due to resistances in path
Low impedance is better for resisting noise

So how do we generate a constant current source?
Transconductance Amplifier




Transconductance Amp
Precision 250 resistor
1V / 250 = 4mA
5V / 250 = 20mA
R
Load
doesnt matter, just
as long as op-amp has
high enough voltage rails
Uses:
- In: Sensors (temp, pressure, etc),
- Out : Radios (Variable Freq Osc)
www.allaboutcircuits.com
Conclusions
Op-Amps are often used for
Sensor amplification
Mathematical operations (sums, difference,
inverse)
Filters (High/Low/Band pass)
Measurement devices
Current in > Voltage out

Questions?
Does an Op-Amp amplify current or voltage?
Can you use an Op-Amp as a buffer? If so, How?
Why should you care about the device bandwidth
rating?
What is the most common Op Amp chip?
What is an active component? Is an Op Amp an
active or a passive component?
What is the advantage of an active vs. passive filter?

Practical Tips
Try to use single supply op-amps in order to minimize need for a 10V
difference from power supply
Good low resistance, twisted, and shielded wire should be used when a
sensor is located far away from the op-amp circuit.
Minimize current draw in sensor circuits to reduce thermal drift
Filter power into op-amp circuits using capacitors
Design op-amp circuits so output cannot be negative in order to protect
68HC11 A/D port.
Isolate op-amp circuit output with unity gain op-amp if connected to an
actuator.
Make sure bandwidth of op-amp is adequate
Use trimmer potentiometers to balance resistors in differential op-amp
circuits
Samples of op-amps can be obtained from National Semiconductor
(http://www.national.com)