Individual Behavior

Foundations of
Individual Behavior
MARS Model of Individual Behavior
Individual
behavior and
results
Situational
factors
Values
Personality
Perceptions
Emotions
Attitudes
Stress Role
perceptions
Motivation
Ability
2-1
The Basic Psychological Model
Behavior = function (Person,
Environment)

Law of Effect = future behavior is a
function of its past consequences
Employee Motivation
Internal forces that affect a persons voluntary
choice ofbehavior
direction
intensity
persistence
R
BAR
S
M
A
2-3
Employee Ability
Natural aptitudes and learned capabilities
required to successfully complete a task
Competencies personal characteristics that
lead to superior performance
Person job matching
selecting
developing
redesigning

R
BAR
S
M
A
2-4

Role Perceptions
Beliefs about what behavior is required to
achieve the desired results:
understanding what tasks to perform
understanding relative importance of tasks
understanding preferred
behaviors to accomplish tasks
R
BAR
S
M
A
2-5
Situational Factors
Environmental conditions beyond the individuals
short-term control that constrain or facilitate
behavior
time
people
budget
work facilities
R
BAR
S
M
A
2-6
Defining Personality
Relatively enduring pattern of thoughts,
emotions, and behaviors that characterize a
person, along with the psychological processes
behind those characteristics
External traits observable behaviors
Internal states thoughts, values, etc inferred from
behaviors
Some variability, adjust to suit the situation
2-7
Nature vs. Nurture of Personality
Influenced by Nature
Heredity explains about 50 percent of behavioral
tendencies and 30 percent of temperament
Minnesota studies twins had similar behaviour
patterns
Influenced by Nurture
Socialization, life experiences, learning also affect
personality
Personality isnt stable at birth
Stabilizes throughout adolescence
Executive function steers using our self-concept as a
guide
2-8
Five-Factor Personality Model (CANOE)
Outgoing, talkative
Sensitive, flexible
Careful, dependable
Courteous, caring
Anxious, hostile
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness to Experience
Extroversion
2-9
Five-Factor Personality and Organizational
Behavior
Conscientiousness and emotional stability
Motivational components of personality
Strongest personality predictors of performance
Extroversion
Linked to sales and mgt performance
Related to social interaction and persuasion
Agreeableness
Effective in jobs requiring cooperation and helpfulness
Openness to experience
Linked to higher creativity and adaptability to change
2-10
Common Personality Measures
MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory
measures emotional stability on 10 scales
http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologicaltesting/a/mmpi_2.htm

MBTI Meyers Briggs Type Indicator

CPI California Psychological Inventory

HPI - Hogan Personality Inventory
McShane/Von Glinow OB 5e
2010
The
McGraw-
Hill
Compani
es, Inc.
All rights
reserved
11
MBTI at Southwest Airlines
Southwest Airlines uses the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
to help staff understand and
respect co-workers different
personalities and thinking
styles. You can walk by and
see someone's [MBTI type]
posted up in their cube, says
Elizabeth Bryant, Southwests
leadership development
director (shown here).
2-12
Jungian Personality Theory
Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung
Identifies preferences for
perceiving the environment
and obtaining/processing
information
Commonly measured by
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI)
2-13
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Extroversion versus introversion
similar to five-factor dimension
Sensing versus intuition
collecting information through senses versus through
intuition, inspiration or subjective sources
Thinking versus feeling
processing and evaluating information
using rational logic versus personal values
Judging versus perceiving
orient themselves to the outer world
order and structure or flexibility and spontaneity
2-14
Feeling Valued at Johnson & Johnson
Johnson & Johnson is one of the most respected
employers because it recognizes the value of
supporting each employees self-concept
2-15
Self-Concept Defined
An individuals self-beliefs and self-evaluations
Who am I? and How do I feel about myself?
Guides individual decisions and behavior
2-16
Three Cs of Self-Concept
Complexity
People have multiple self-concepts
Consistency
Improved wellbeing when multiple self-concepts
require similar personality traits and values
Clarity
Clearly and confidently described, internally
consistent, and stable across time.
Self-concept clarity requires self-concept consistency
2-17
Four Selves of Self-Concept
Self-enhancement
Promoting and protecting our positive self-view
Self-verification
Affirming our existing self-concept (good and bad
elements)
Self-evaluation
Evaluating ourselves through self-esteem, self-
efficacy, and locus of control
Social self
Defining ourselves in terms of group membership
2-18
Self-Concept: Self-Enhancement
Drive to promote/protect a positive self-view
competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued
Strongest in common/important situations
Positive self-concept outcomes:
better personal adjustment and mental/physical health
inflates personal causation and probability of success

2-19
Self-Concept: Self-Verification
Motivation to verify/maintain our existing self-
concept
Stabilizes our self-concept
People prefer feedback consistent with their self-
concept
Self-verification outcomes:
We ignore or reject info inconsistent with self-concept
We interact more with those who affirm/reflect self-
concept
2-20
Self-Concept: Self-Evaluation
Defined mainly by three dimensions:
Self-esteem
High self-esteem -- less influenced, more
persistent/logical
Self-efficacy
Belief in ones ability, motivation, role perceptions, and
situation to complete a task successfully
General vs. task-specific self-efficacy
Locus of control
General belief about personal control over life events
Higher self-evaluation with internal locus of control
2-21
Self-Concept: Social Self
Social identity -- defining ourselves in terms of
groups to which we belong or have an
emotional attachment
We identify with groups that have high status --
aids self-enhancement
Employees at
other firms
People living in
other countries
Graduates of
other schools
An
individuals
social
identity
IBM Employee
Live in
U.S.A.
University of
Dallas Graduate
Contrasting Groups
2-22
Values in the Workplace
Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our
preferences
Define right or wrong, good or bad
Value system -- hierarchy of values

2-23
Schwartzs Values Model
2-24
Schwartzs Values Model
Openness to change
motivation to pursue innovative
ways
Conservation -- motivation to
preserve the status quo
Self-enhancement -- motivated
by self-interest
Self-transcendence -- motivation
to promote welfare of others and
nature
2-25
Values and Behavior
Habitual behavior usually consistent with values,
but conscious behavior less so because values
are abstract constructs
Decisions and behavior are linked to values
when:
Mindful of our values
Have logical reasons to apply values in that situation
Situation does not interfere
2-26
Values Congruence
Where two or more entities have similar value
systems
Problems with incongruence
Incompatible decisions
Lower satisfaction/loyalty
Higher stress and turnover
Benefits of incongruence
Better decision making (diverse perspectives)
Avoids corporate cults
2-27
Values Across Cultures: Individualism and
Collectivism
Degree that people value duty to their group
(collectivism) versus independence and person
uniqueness (individualism)
Previously considered opposites, but unrelated --
i.e. possible to value high individualism and high
collectivism
2-28
Individualism
The degree to which
people value personal
freedom, self-sufficiency,
control over themselves,
being appreciated for
unique qualities Denmark
Taiwan
Italy
High Individualism
U.S.
Low Individualism
India
2-29
Collectivism
The degree to which
people value their group
membership and
harmonious relationships
within the group
India
U.S.
Taiwan
High Collectivism
Italy
Low Collectivism
Denmark
2-30
Power Distance
High power distance
Value obedience to authority
Comfortable receiving
commands from superiors
Prefer formal rules and authority
to resolve conflicts
Low power distance
Expect relatively equal power
sharing
View relationship with boss as
interdependence, not
dependence
Japan
Israel
Denmark
Venezuela
High Power Distance
Malaysia
Low Power Distance
U.S.
2-31
Uncertainty Avoidance
High uncertainty avoidance
feel threatened by ambiguity
and uncertainty
value structured situations and
direct communication
Low uncertainty avoidance
tolerate ambiguity and
uncertainty
High U. A.
Low U. A.
Japa
n
Greece
U.S.
Italy
Singapor
e
2-32
Achievement-Nurturing
High achievement
orientation
assertiveness
competitiveness
materialism
High nurturing
orientation
relationships
others well-being
Achievement
Nurturing
Japan
U.S.
Sweden
China
Chile
France
2-33
Utilitarianism
Individual
Rights
Greatest good for the greatest
number of people
Fundamental entitlements
in society
Distributive
Justice
People who are similar should
receive similar benefits
Three Ethical Principles
2-34
An Alternative Set of Principles
McShane/Von Glinow OB 5e
2010
The
McGraw-
Hill
Compani
es, Inc.
All rights
reserved
35
Egoist if it benefits me

Utilitarian the greatest net
good

Absolutist right and wrong
stand apart from human
judgment
Influences on Ethical Conduct
Moral intensity
degree that issue demands ethical principles
Ethical sensitivity
ability to recognize the presence and determine the
relative importance of an ethical issue
Situational influences
competitive pressures and other conditions affect ethical
behavior
2-36
Supporting Ethical Behavior
Ethical code of conduct
Ethics training
Ethics hotlines
Ethical leadership and culture
2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 238
Biographical Characteristics
Biographical Characteristics
Personal characteristicssuch as age, gender, and
marital statusthat are objective and easily obtained
from personnel records.
Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence
Ability
An individuals capacity to perform
the various tasks in a job.
Intellectual Ability
The capacity to do mental activities.
Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence contains four subparts:
cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.
Number aptitude
Verbal comprehension
Perceptual speed
Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning
Spatial visualization
Memory
Dimensions of
Intellectual Ability
E X H I B I T 21
Physical Abilities
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks
demanding stamina, dexterity,
strength, and similar
characteristics.
Other Factors
7. Body coordination
8. Balance
9. Stamina
Nine Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
1. Dynamic strength
2. Trunk strength
3. Static strength
4. Explosive strength
Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
6. Dynamic flexibility
E X H I B I T 22
Source: Adapted from
HRMagazine published
by the Society for Human
Resource Management,
Alexandria, VA.
Ability-Job
Fit
The Ability-Job Fit
Employees
Abilities
Jobs Ability
Requirements
Learning
Learning
Involves change
Is relatively permanent
Is acquired through experience
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.
Theories of Learning
Key Concepts
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.
E X H I B I T 23
Source: The Far Side
by Gary Larson 1993
Far Works, Inc. All rights
reserved. Used with
permission.
Theories of Learning (contd)
Key Concepts
Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
Conditioned (learned) behavior
Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
Key Concepts
Attentional processes
Retention processes
Motor reproduction processes
Reinforcement processes
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation
and direct experience.
Key Concepts
Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
Some rewards are more effective than others.
The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.
Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant consequence when the
desired behavior occurs.
Punishment
Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an
undesirable behavior.
Extinction
Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its
cessation.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.
Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.
Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)
Fixed-ratio
E X H I B I T 24
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
E X H I B I T 25
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)
E X H I B I T 25 (contd)
Behavior Modification
Five Step Problem-Solving Model
1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts
to individuals in the work setting.
OB MOD Organizational Applications
Well Pay versus Sick Pay
Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not
absence.
Employee Discipline
The use of punishment can be counter-productive.
Developing Training Programs
OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
Self-management
Reduces the need for external management control.

Individual Behavior

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