Chapter 2

Shell Momentum Balances

and Velocity Distributions
in Laminar Flow
1.2. MOLECULAR TRANSPORT
Viscous force works if there is velocity gradient in the fluid.
Viscous forces per unit area (viscous stress) may be
expressed as t
x
, t
y
or t
z
.
Each viscous stress has 3 components, e.g. t
x
has components
t
xx
,t
xy
and

t
xz
Pressure and viscous stress both are combined to form
molecular stress
t
ij
=po
ij
+ t
ij
where i and j may be x, y or z
o
ij
is Kronecker delta, 1 if i=j and 0 if ij, because pressure
works on the change of velocity at streamwise direction.


t
ii
=p

+ t
ii
= normal stress, i.e. stress in i direction due to
momentum transfer (as a result of addition of pressure) in
i direction
t
ij
=

t
ij
= shear stress. i.e. stress in j direction due to
momentum transfer (velocity gradient) in i direction =
shear stress
Shear stress: Force per unit area that is exerted parallel to
the surface on which it acts. In this figure t
ij
= t
yx
= -
dv
x
/dy (Newton law)
Momentum transfer is due to velocity gradient from
higher to lower velocities
Direction of momentum transfer
(through a plane normal to y
direction) from higher to lower velocities
generating a force (CAUSE)
direction of shear
stress (force/area).
Area may be normal
to the force in case of
normal stress or
parallel to the force in
case of shear stress
Vector of
momentum flux is
determined by the
2
nd
subscript. A
momentum
balance contains
terms with the
same 2
nd
subscript




Normal stress: Force/unit area that is exerted normal to the
surface on which it acts. Because of this force, the velocity
changes in the direction of the force. Pressure is a normal stress
t
xx
= p + t
xx
,

t
yy
= p + t
yy
, t
zz
= p + t
zz
are normal stresses, while
t
xy
=

t
yx
,

t
xz
=

t
zx
,

t
yz
=

t
zy
are shear stresses. These quantities
which have 2 subscripts are called tensors.
A tensor requires information of magnitude, direction of
momentum transfer and direction of the force to specify it,
while a vector requires magnitude and direction
These stresses cause molecular (diffusional) transport.

direction of
momentum transfer
direction of shear
stress
1.7. CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT
Momentum can be transported by fluid flow bulk. This
process is called convective transport.
Volume rate through a unit area x direction is v
x
. This
volume flows with mass flux v. Momentum flux carrying
this mass flux through this area is v
x
v
.
With the same fashion, momentum fluxes carrying the same
mass flux through area y and z directions are v
y
v dan
v
z
v.
Those vector v
x
v, v
y
v, v
z
v respectively have components
in the directions of x, y and z, e.g. v
x
vhas components
v
x
v
x
, v
x
v
y
and

v
x
v
z
, but v belongs to a mass flux, so
their components must be present in a mass balance
(inseparable)

v
x
v
y
is the convective momentum flux carried by a
momentum through a plane normal to x component and
carrying the y-component of a mass flux
Because vv has 2 subscripts to denote a plane which
normal to mass flux direction and direction of convection
velocity, it is called tensor.

direction of
momentum transfer
(through a plane
normal to x-
direction) carrying
mass (CAUSE)
mass flux in y direction (part of inseparable x-, y-,
z-direction mass flux). Inseparable means all
these directions belong to a mass flux and are
always present in one mass balance
Vector of momentum flux is determined by
the second subscript. A momentum
balance contains terms with the same 2
nd

subscript
Only the second
component of tensor
v
z
is used because
mass is flowing only
in z direction
MOLECULAR AND CONVECTIVE
TRANSPORT
Table 1.7-1 Summary of components of convective
momentum flux


Dimension of vectors: force/area or
momentum flux (= force/area)
Direction of
momentum
transfer as
CAUSE
Direction of mass-
carrying velocity
(momentum transfer)
as CAUSE
= Diffusive momentum-
flux tensor
For a system of compressible fluid, and involving 2 or 3 dimensions,
modified Newtons law of viscosity in Cartesian, cylindrical and
spherical cordinates are as follows



2.1. SHELL MOMENTUM BALANCES
AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Momentum balance at steady-state condition:
(rate of momentum in)
(rate of momentum out) +
(sum of forces acting on system) =0 (2.1-1)
Forces included in the balance are pressure force (acting
on the surface) and gravity force (acting on the entire
fluid volume)
In momentum balance, the flow sometimes is driven by
shear, by pressure or by gravity (shear-driven flow,
pressure-driven flow or gravity-driven flow)


Procedure to solve the problem of viscous flow
Write Eq. (2.1-1) for shell for finite thickness as a
representative part of a system in which the velocity
varies.
Change the thickness approaching zero ( 0).
Make differential equation describing distribution of
momentum flux
Insert Newton equation to obtain differential equation for
velocity distribution
Information from integrations can be used to calculate
various quantities, such as average velocity, maximum
velocity, volumetric rate, pressure drop and forces on
fluid boundaries

Some constants arising in the integrations are evaluated
using boundary conditions.
Boundary conditions generally used are
At interface solid-fluid, fluid velocity = surface (solid)
velocity on which the fluid attaches
At a liquid-gas interfacial plane of constant x, the shear
stress is zero. For example t
xy
or t
xz
= zero, provided that
the gas-side velocity gradient is not too large. This is
reasonable, since the viscosities of gases are much less than
those of liquids
At a liquid-liquid interfacial plane of constant x, the
tangential velocity components v
y
and v
z
are continuous
through the interface (the "no-slip condition") as are also
the molecular stress-tensor components t
xy
and

t
xz
.
2.2. FLOW OF A FALLING FILM (the case
of gravity-driven flow)
Observe the fluid with length L at position far away from
the ends of the wall so that disturbance effects at inlet and
outlet points are negligible.
Momentum balance in z direction on the system with
thickness Az is developed between planes at z=0 to z=L.
Fluid flow has width =W at y direction.

For first instance, assume that
there are momentum transfers
across each surface due to
mass flux and due to velocity
gradient
In this case, convection
(mass flux) is only in z-
direction. The causes of
momentum transfer could be
in x, y and z directions.
If a component of the
causes are non existence,
then, ignore the related term
Gravity-driven, not pressure-
driven flow

Force/area Force/area Force/volume
All terms in
momentum
balance have
the same 2
nd

subscript
Gravity-driven, not pressure-
driven flow
Therefore, velocity distribution is parabolic (see Fig. 2.2-
3)
Maximum velocity, v
z,max
occurs at x=0, is
. (2.2-19)

Average velocity, (v
z
) along the film is
. (2.2-20)
2
z, max
g cos
v
2
o |
=

W
z
0 0
z z
W
0
0 0
1
2
2 2
0
v dx dy
1
v v dx
dx dy
g cos x x g cos
1 d
2 3
o
o
o
= =
o
(
o | o | | | | |
= = (
| |
o o
\ . \ . (

} }
}
} }
}
Volumetric rate Q obtained from integration of velocity
distribution
. (2.2-21)

Film thickness o as a function of (v
z
), Q and massa rate
(W) (I= o (v
z
)) are
. (2.2-22)
W
2 3
z z
0 0
gW cos
w v dxdy W v
3
o
o |
= = o =

} }
z
3
3
2
3 v
3 w
gcos
g Wcos

o = =
|
|
z-component of force on the surface (solid) is obtained by
integrating momentum flux on the interface of solid-
liquid.
. (2.2-23)



F
z
= the weight of the entire fluid along L of the film.
L W L W
z
z x
xz x
0 0 0 0
dv
F dydz dydz
dx
g cos
(LW)( ) g LWcos
=o
=o
= t =
| | o |
= = o |
|

\ .
} } } }
Example 2.2-1. Calculation of Film
Velocity
Oil has kinematic viscosity (v)=2x10
-4
m
2
.sec
-1
and density
0.8x10
3
kg/m
3
. What is the film mass rate, w, vertically
flowing on the wall such that o=2.5mm?
Answer:
According to Eq. (2.2-20) with cos | =1 and v=/,
.



To get mass flowrate, value of W (width of the wall) must
be inserted. This applies to laminar flow
( )
( )
3 3 3
3
z z
4
1 1
(2.5x10 ) 0.8x10 9.8W
gW
w v A v W
3
3 2x10
0.204Wkgm sec

o
= = o = =
v
=
To check laminarity, calculate Re
.
( )
( )( )
z
3 4
4 v 4 0.204
4w/ W
Re 5.1
0.8x10 2x10

o
= = = =
v
For conduits other than pipe, Re = 4 x hydraulic radius x x <v
z
>/
Hydraulic radius = cross-sectional area/wetted perimeter = (o.W)/W= o
2.3. FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR
TUBE (the case of combined gravity-driven
and pressure-driven flow)
We consider steady state laminar flow for fluid with
constant density in the very long tube of length L and
radius R. Very long means no end effect.
We consider on this system the cylindrical shell with
thickness Ar and length L (see Fig. 2.3-1).
We can take the shell the
whole length of cylinder,
L, because it is assumed
that the velocity profile
remains the same from
the top to the bottom.
Convection is only in z
direction.
Datum line
Momentum rate in through cylinder surface at r.
.
Momentum rate out through cylinder surface at r+Ar.
.
Momentum rate in to the surface at z=0

Momentum rate out to the surface at z=L

All terms have the same 2
nd
subscript.

( )
2
rz r
rL t |
( )
2
rz r r
rL
A
t |
+
( )( )
0
2
zz z
r r t A |
=
( )( )
2
zz z L
r r t A |
=
Gravity force acting on the shell of the cylinder
.
By summing all momentums and forces
. (2.3-6)

( )
2 r r L g t A
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )
0
2 2 2
2 2 0
rz r rz r r zz z
zz z L
rL rL r r
r r r r L g
A
t | t | t A |
t A | t A
+ =
=
+
+ =
+ because datum line at the
top of the shell
By dividing Eq. (2.3-6) by 2tLAr and taking limit Ar
0.
(2.3-7)


By changing to differential form, then Eq. (2.3-7)
becomes
. (2.3-8)

( ) ( )
0
0
lim
rz r r rz r zz zz
z z L
r
r r
g r
r L
A
A
| | | |

A
+
= =

| |
| |
|
= + |
|
|
\ .
\ .
0
zz zz
z z L
rz
( r ) g r
t L
| |
|
= =
| |
c
= + |
|
c
\ .
.


.
.
(i) because v
r
= 0, we can drop the term v
r
v
z
in Eq. 2.3-
9a;
(ii) because v
z
=v
z
(r), the term v
z
v
z
will be the same at
both ends of the tube
(iii) because v
z
=v
z
(r), the term -2dv
z
/dz will be the same
at both ends of the tube =0.
Hence Eq. 2.3-8 simplifies to

v
z
= v
z
(r), v
r
= 0, v
u
= 0, and p = p(z).


where p
0
p
L
+ gL = (p
0
- g0) - (p
L
- gL) = P
0
- P
L


Eq 2.3-10 may be integrated to become
.

Constant C
1
is evaluated by using the boundary conditions
At r=0, t
rz
= 0, then C
1
= 0 and Eq. (2.3-11) becomes
.

p gz = P
Velocity distribution is shown in Fig. 2.3-2.
Newton viscosity law for this situation is
.

Substitution this relationship to Eq. (2.3-12) gives
.

Integrations results in
.
z
rz
dv
dr
t =
Using B.C. v
z
=0 at r=R,
Then velocity distribution is
.


Therefore, for laminar and incompressible flow, velocity
distribution is parabolic.
Maximum velocity, v
z,max
occurs at r=0
.
Average velocity, (v
z
)
.



The mass flow rate = w = (v
z
) A = (v
z
) tR
2
.
This equation is called Hagen-Poiseuille law. Two forces
acting on the system: pressure force + gravity force
z-component of fluid force acting on the wetted wall, F
z
=
integration of momentum over the wetted area:
.
Validity of Eq. (2.3-22)
Laminar flow Re < 2100
Density is constant (incompressible flow)
The flow is steady-state
The fluid is Newtonian ,
End-effect is negligible
The fluid behaves continuum
No slip on the wall
z
rz
dv
dr
t =
Example 2.3-1. Determination of
Viscosity from Capillary Flow Data
Glycerine (CH
2
OH.CHOH.CH
2
OH) at 26.5
o
C is flowing
through a horizontal tube 1 ft long and with 0.1 in. inside
diameter. For AP = 40 psi, the volume flow rate w/ is
0.00398 ft
3
/min. The density of glycerine at 26.5
o
C is 1.261
g/cm
3
. From the flow data, find the viscosity of glycerine
in centipoises and in Pa.
SOLUTI ON
From the Hagen-Poiseuille equation (Eq. 2.3-21), we find
.





To check whether the flow is laminar, we calculate the
Reynolds number
.



Hence the flow is indeed laminar. Furthermore, the
entrance length is

Hence, entrance effects are not important, and the
viscosity value given above has been calculated properly
Example 2.3-2. Compressible Flow in a
Horizontal Circular Tube
Obtain an expression for the mass rate of flow w for an
ideal gas in laminar flow in a long circular tube. The flow
is presumed to be isothermal.
Assume that the pressure change through the tube is not
very large, so that the viscosity can be regarded a constant
throughout
This problem can be solved approximately by assuming
that the Hagen-Poiseuille equation (Eq. 2.3-21) can be
applied over a small length dz of the tube as follows:
.

To eliminate in favor of p, we use the ideal gas law in
the form p/ = p
0
/
0
, or =
0
p/p
0
, where p
0
and
0
are
the pressure and density at z = 0. This gives
.

The mass rate of flow w is the same for all z (=constant).
Hence Eq. 2.3-27 can be integrated from z = 0 to z = L to
give
.

Since p
0
2
p
L
2
= (p
0
+ p
L
)(p
0
- p
L
), we get finally
.

where
avg
= (
0
+
L
) is the average density calculated
at the average pressure p
avg
= (p
0
+ p
L
).
2.4. FLOW THROUGH AN ANNULUS (the
case of combined pressure and gravity-driven
flow)
We now solve another viscous flow problem in
cylindrical coordinates, namely the steady-state axial flow
of an incompressible liquid in an annular region between
two coaxial cylinders of radii kR and R as shown in Fig.
2.4-1. The fluid is flowing upward in the tube that is, in
the direction opposed to gravity.
We make the same postulates as in 2.3: v
z
= v
z
(r), v
r
= 0,
v
u
= 0, and p = p(z) and assume that velocity profile
remains unchanged along z. Then when we make a
momentum balance over a thin cylindrical shell of liquid,
we arrive at the following differential equation:
This differs from Eq. 2.3-10 only in that P = p + gz here,
since the coordinate z is in the direction opposed to
gravity. Integration of Eq. 2.4-1 gives


The constant C
1
cannot be determined immediately, since
we have no information about the momentum flux at the
fixed surfaces r = kR and r = R.
P
0
P
L
= p
0
+ g0 - p
L
- gL
All we know is that there will be a maximum in the
velocity curve at some (as yet unknown) plane r = R
between r = kR and r = R at which the momentum flux
will be zero. That is,
.

When we solve this equation for C
1
and substitute it into
Eq. 2.4-2, we get
.

The only difference between this equation and Eq. 2.4-2 is
that the constant of integration C
1
has been eliminated in
favour of a different constant . The advantage of this is that
we know the geometrical significance of .
We now substitute Newton's law of viscosity, t
rz
= -
(dv
z
/dr), into Eq. 2.4-4 to obtain a differential equation for
v
z
.
.
Integration of this first-order separable differential
equation then gives
.

We now evaluate the two constants of integration, and
C
2
by using the no-slip condition on each solid boundary:
.
Substitution of these boundary conditions into Eq. 2.4-6
then gives two simultaneous equations:
.

From these the two integration constants and C
2
are
found to be

.
These expressions can be inserted into Eqs. 2.4-4 and 2.4-6
to give the momentum-flux distribution and the velocity
distribution as follows:
.




Note that when the annulus becomes very thin (i.e., k
only slightly less than unity and 1- k ~ 0), these results
simplify to those for a plane slit (see Problem 2B.5).
It is always a good idea to check "limiting cases" such as
these whenever the opportunity presents itself
The lower limit of k 0 is not so simple, because the
ratio ln(R/r)/ln(l/k) will always be important in a region
close to the inner boundary. Hence Eq. 2.4-14 does not
simplify to the parabolic distribution.
Once we have the momentum-flux and velocity
distributions, it is straightforward to get other results of
interest:

.



The equations derived above are valid only for laminar
flow. The laminar-turbulent transition occurs in the
neighborhood of Re = 2000, with the Reynolds number
defined as Re = 2R(1 - k) (v
z
) /.
Hydraulic radius = 4(t R
2
- t (kR)
2
)/(2t R + 2tkR) =
2R(1 - k)

2.5. FLOW OF TWO ADJACENT
IMMISCIBLE FLUIDS
Two immiscible, incompressible liquids are flowing in
the z direction in a horizontal thin slit of length L and
width W under the influence of a horizontal pressure
gradient (p
o
- p
L
)/L.
The fluid flow rates are adjusted so that the slit is half
filled with fluid I (the more dense phase) and half filled
with fluid II (the less dense phase).
The fluids are flowing sufficiently slowly that no
instabilities occur-that is, that the interface remains
exactly planar.
It is desired to find the momentum-flux and velocity
distributions.
A differential momentum balance leads to the following
differential equation for the momentum flux (assume that
no change of velocity profile at z direction):
.

This equation is obtained for both phase I and phase II.
Integration of Eq. 2.5-1 for the two regions gives
.
momentum flux t
xz
is continuous through the fluid-fluid
interface
BC. 1, at x = 0, t
xz
I
= t
xz
II
(2.5-4)
Therefore, C
I
= C
II