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TECTONIC GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE

HIMALAYAS
M N Mishra, Sr. Geologist, GSI, Bhopal

Geomorphology:
concerned with the structure, origin, and development of
the topographical features of the Earth's surface

Tectonic Geomorphology:
competition between tectonic processes that tend to build
topography and surface processes that tend to tear them
down represent the core of Tectonic Geomorphology
Active crustal deformation
Landforms in tectonically active areas:
- complex integration of effects of
vertical and horizontal motion of crustal
blocks and aggradational and
degradational processes
- Thermal processes, heterogeneities of
mantle, climate & erosion rates
-Extraction of
topographic info
- modeling
surface
processes
- recognition of
terrain
morphologic
elements
- understanding
spatial
relationships
Definitions
Morphotectonics
Geomorphology of landforms shaped by
active tectonic movements
- faulting, folding and tilting of Quaternary sediments
- warping of planation surfaces
- off-setting of river valleys and streams
- abrupt variations in stream gradients & degree of incision
- segmentation of alluvial fans
- presence of linear alluvial scarps
- differential accumulation of recent sediments
- etc.
Quaternary landforms and drainage are
extremely sensitive to active tectonics


Geomorphic analysis of the landforms and
drainage has the potential for providing insights
into active tectonic rates, styles, and patterns of
deformation
Morphotectonic studies
Himalayas: the abode of snow
The Eight Thousanders club
Everest 8848
K2 8611
Kanchanjunga 8586
Lhotse 8516
Makalu 8462
Cho Oyu 8201
Dhaulagiri 8167
Manaslu 8156
Nanga Parbat 8126
Annapurna 8091
Karakorams A no. of peaks with >8000
Early Silurian (-444 ma)
Permian Trias Boundary (-253 ma)
Early Cretaceous (130-125 ma)
Convergence since Late
Cretaceous
Initial contact
( Eocene 38 my)

Rate of movement 180
mm/a to 50 mm/a
Continent
continent collision:

Indian & Eurasian
plates

most tectonically active
region of the world

moderate to large
magnitude earthquakes

1905 Kangra (M 7.8)
1934 Bihar (M 8.4)
1950 Upp. Assam (M
8.5)

Prominent tectonically
controlled geomorphic
indicators
Tectonic
Subdivisions
Indus suture zone
Ophiolite melange : bedded cherts, scraped oceanic crust, Dras Volcanics : Upp Cret to
Upp Jurassic basalts, dacites, volcaniclastics, pillow lavas, cherts
Indus Molasse: continental clastics, fluvials, lacustrines, post-collisional, Eocene to post-
Eocene
Central Himalayas
Tethys Himalayas: Folded, imbricated, weakly metamorphosed sediments, Upper
Paleozoic to Eocene components, greenschists, eclogites
High Himalayan Crystalline Sequences: 30 km thick med to high grade meta- sed.
Intruded by Ordo (500 Ma) to Lr. Mio (22 Ma) granites . Sed are Upp Proterozoic to Lr.
Cambrian , thrust over Lesser Himalayas along MCT
Lesser Himalayas
Upp Prot to Lr Cenozoic detritals from passive Indian margin, granites, rhyolites , are
thrust over the Sub-Himalayas along the MBT
Sub-Himalayas
Foothills of Himalayan range, Mio to Pleisto Molasses, Murees, Siwaliks, thrust over the
Indogangetic plains along MBF / Main Frontal Thrust


Main Tectonic Features
Collision zone (Inactive at present)
ISZ = Indus suture zone
MMT= Main mantle thrust

Tethys Himalayas & High Himalayas
thrust over Lesser Himalayas along
MCT (Main Central Thrust, largely
inactive)
Lesser Himalayas are thrust over Sub-
Himalayas along MBT (inactive to
reactivated)
Main Tectonic Features
Himalayan Frontal (Reverse)
Fault / Thrust:
Sub-Himalayas thrust over
the Gangetic plains
Most active structure

India Eurasia convergence rate: 44 to 61 mm / y
Thrusting beneath the Himalayas : 18 mm / y
Convergence taken by HFF : 10 15 mm / y
Remainder convergence : approx 20 mm / y taken by the area to the north
Profile Graph Title
Profile Graph Subtitle
1,400,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 800,000 600,000 400,000 200,000 0
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
MCT MBT HFF ISZ
- Abrupt change in elevation
from Gangetic plains to
Sub-Himalayas
- Gradual change in
elevation from Sub-
Himalayas to Lesser
Himalayas
- Abrupt Change in elevation
from Lesser Himalayas to
Great Himalayas (~ 5000
m)
- Greater Himalayas form an
elevation front
Crustal
rebound
Foreland
Two Forelands &
basement uplifts
Plains
Siwaliks
Lesser Himalyas
Greater
Himalayas
Tibet
The Kali Gandaki River: The worlds deepest
gorge between Dhaulagiri & Annapurna
Steepest gradient:
N of MCT
No deflection of rivers while crossing the MCT, but many rivers flow parallel to
antiforms at HFF before breaching them
Hypsometric curve of Subansiri Basin in
Tibet and India
Manifestations of the Himalayan Frontal Fault
- As antiformal ridges faulted on their flanks & development of
duns: synformal valleys between growing anticlines
- As northerly dipping imbricate thrusts where antiformal ridges
and intervening duns are absent

Absence of anticlinal ridges & duns, HFF
as imbricate thrust planes
Antiformal ridges & Duns along HFF
Janauri anticline: between Beas and Sutlej
Mohand anticline: between Yamuna & Ganga
Between Ghaghra & Bagmati
Jia Bhareli
Itanagar
Beas
Sutlej
Lithologic
discrimination
MBT
S
K
S
D
T T
DiT
T T
Gr+Gn
MS(BG)
Fan Surface
MBT
S
FHF
DiT T T Gondwanas
Ziro
Tale
Miri
MBT
FHF
DiT
T T
Imbricate thrusts
with piggy back
structure
Structure and Tectonics
Lineaments
A. Himalayan structural trends and thrusts (ENE
WSW & E - W, maxima at N60E)
B. Conjugate set of Shear Fractures (Wrench Faults)
i. N S (maxima at N 5 E) with sinistral sense of
movement
ii. WNW ESE (maxima at N65W) with dextral
sense of movement
Orientation of max. principal horizontal stress N30W-S30E
Maxima of thrusts occurs at right angles to this direction (i.e., at
N60E)

N5E
N65W
N30W
Dextral Shear Model
B
o
m
d
i
l
a

b
e
l
t

D
a
f
l
a

F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

S
u
b
a
n
s
i
r
i

F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

K
i
m
i
n

F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

N
S
1. A no. of composite
thrust planes
forming vertically
stacked system of
ramps
2. Ramps facilitate
large component of
vertical movement
along them
3. Deformation and
folding of strata
under active thrust
planes
High relief due to:
The left-lateral Chaman
Fault
Extensive terrace cultivation
1500 km of crustal
shortening

Zone of
deformation 3000
km wide

2400 km of
missing cont crust
subduction of cont
crust
squeezing of Indo
China by the
indenter
Folding, thrusting,
ramping
Linear morphologic features :
structural discontinuities
Intersection of structural discontinuities & land surface give rise
to linear morphologic features

Linear valleys, ridge lines, linear break in slopes

Master joints, high-angle normal, reverse, strike-slip faults

Low-angle thrust faults: curvilinear

Intersection of folds with land surface
Planar morphologic features
Uniform hill sides along fractures / faults

Triangular-faceted spurs along faults

Geometry of planar surfaces is described by
uniform aspect and constant slope values

Large elongated areas of uniform aspect and
slope with linear boundaries can be associated
with faults

Depressions, pressure ridges, tilt of surfaces,
bulges with local maxima or minima present
along fault zones
Morphometric Indices
Ls
Lmf
S
Studies in Tectonic geomorphology &
morphotectonics
Shaded-relief / hill-shade models
Accentuation of relief
Extraction of topographic lineaments, fractures,
morphotectonic elements etc.

3-D Image drape
Study of terrain features in 3-D

Digital cross-sections
Better comprehension of terrain features

Studies in Tectonic geomorphology &
morphotectonics
Derivative maps:
Slope & Aspect maps : regional morphotectonic
evaluation

Trend analysis : to study tectonically induced tilt

Curvature maps: recognition and characterization of
faults

Extraction of morphotectonic
features from DEM
Slope map
Slope is the first derivative of elevation and
abrupt changes in slope across the landscape
may be indicative of the presence of active faults
in the terrain. Lineaments seen in slope maps
may be fault scarps.
Extraction of morphotectonic
features from DEM
Slope map : escarpments have high slope
Extraction of morphotectonic
features from DEM
Digital topographic profiling : longitudinal / cross
profiles of mountain ranges and faults
Longitudinal profiles in uplifted area may display young age
of the landforms by highlighting the presence of V-shaped
valleys.

Transverse profiles across faults record significant
topographic and slope breaks and facilitate measurement of
escarpment heights
Hypsometric Index =
(Mean EL Min EL)/ (Max EL Min EL)
Morphometric Indices as Indicators of Active Tectonics
Ratio of Valley-Floor Width to Valley Height

V
fw
is the width of valley floor, E
ld
and E
rd
are the respective
elevations of the left and right valley divides, and E
sc
is the
elevation of the valley floor
Low V
f
indicates active uplift,
values may range from 0.05
to 4.7
Morphometric Indices as Indicators of Active Tectonics
Basin Asymmetry Factor
Basin area = 532 km
2
Right poly area = 345 km
2
AF = 65%
Basin asymmetry factor (A
f
) can
be used to evaluate tectonic tilting
at the scale of a drainage basin. A
f

is defined as:

A
f
= 100 (A
r
/ A
t
)
Basin Asymmetry Factor
Shillong Plateau

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