 Based on complex mathematical

calculations and interpretations.

Elaborately
described in Quantum
Mechanics by the German physicist
Werner Karl Heisenberg.

This model is also called the

“Electron Cloud Model”
 The electron is found
inside a blurry
“electron cloud”,
also called the
“probability region”.
“The more precisely the position of
a particle is determined, the less
precisely the momentum is known
in this instant; and vice versa.”
Describes the region of space where
the electron is most likely to be found.
Provides information on the energy of
the electron.

Energyis quantized,
meaning: can be subdivided into small
but measurable increments.
 An orbital is not a circular path, rather it is an
energy state that can be described by the four
quantum numbers.
 Principal Quantum Number (n or shell)
- the main energy level of an orbital
- related to the total energy of the electron in
an atom
- represents physically the radial distance
that the probability region extends out from
the nucleus
- values: positive integer beginning with 1
- 2n2 rule: maximum number of electrons that
can occupy a main energy level
Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
- energy sublevels
- defines the shape of the orbital
- values: 0 until the integer n-1
l Sublevel Orbital Shape

0 S Spherical

1 P Dumbbell-shaped

2 D 4 cloverleaf-shaped;
1 dumbbell-shaped w/ ring
3 F (too complex to describe)
 Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
- describes the orientation of the orbital in space
- values: integral value from –l to +l, including 0
- formula: 2l + 1 = number of ml values per sublevel

Sublevel l ml

S 0 0

P 1 -1, 0, 1

D 2 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
Spin Quantum Number (ms)
- represents the electron spin
- describes the direction of the spin of
one electron in reaction to the magnetic
field generated by another electron
nearby.
- values: +½ ( ) – clockwise spin
and -½ ( ) – counterclockwise spin
 Describes how the electrons are distributed
among the orbitals.

Ground state – lowest energy state of the atom;

most stable arrangement of the electrons
“The electrons fill the orbitals, one at a time,
starting with the lower energy orbital then
proceeding to the one with higher energy.”
n+l rule

- used to identify which orbital has lower

energy and is filled up first as electrons are
added to the atom.

- the lower the (n+l), the lower the energy

- if (n+l) values are equal, the one with

lower n value has the lower energy.
“No two electrons in the same atom can
have the same set of four quantum
numbers.”

Consequently, it means: Only two

electrons may occupy an orbital, and
they must have different spins.
Sublevel # of orbital Maximum # of
electrons
S 1 2

P 3 6

D 5 10

F 7 14
“When electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy,
they don’t pair up unless all the orbitals have
been filled up by a single electron.”

Degenerate orbitals – orbitals or energy levels

with the same energy
Paramagnetic Element
– has one or more unpaired electrons in its orbital
– can be attracted to a magnet

Diamagnetic Element
- only paired electrons in its orbitals
- slightly repelled by a magnet
 Padolina et al. Conceptual and Functional
Chemistry. QC: Vibal Publishing House, Inc.,
2004.
 Brescia et al. Fundamentals of Chemistry.
NY: Academic Press, Inc. 1983