M N Mishra, Director, GSI

Geomorphology:
- Concerned with the structure, origin, and development
of the topographical features of the Earth's surface
Tectonic Geomorphology:
-Synonymous with morphotectonics
-study of the interaction of tectonics and
geomorphology

Active crustal deformation

Landforms in tectonically active
areas:
- complex integration of effects
of vertical and horizontal
motion of crustal blocks and
aggradational and
degradational processes
- Thermal processes,
heterogeneities of mantle,
climate & erosion rates

-Extraction of
topographic info
- modeling
surface
processes
- recognition of
terrain
morphologic
elements
- understanding
spatial
relationships

Main lines of interest in Morphotectonic /

Tectonic Geomorphology research:
Study of landforms indicative of
contemporary or recent tectonic movement
Study of deformation of Planation Surfaces
Study of geomorphological effects of
earthquakes
Use of geomorphological evidence to predict
earthquakes

Morphotectonics
Geomorphology of landforms shaped by
active tectonic movements
- faulting, folding and tilting of Quaternary sediments
- warping of planation surfaces
- off-setting of river valleys and streams
- abrupt variations in stream gradients & degree of incision
- segmentation of alluvial fans
- presence of linear alluvial scarps
- differential accumulation of recent sediments
- etc.

Morphotectonic studies
Quaternary landforms and drainage are
extremely sensitive to active tectonics

Geomorphic analysis of the landforms and

drainage has the potential for providing insights
into active tectonic rates, styles, and patterns of
deformation

Linear morphologic features :

structural discontinuities
Intersection of

structural
discontinuities &
land surface give
rise to linear
morphologic
features

Linear valleys,

ridge lines, linear

break in slopes

Master joints, high-angle

normal, reverse, strike-slip
faults
Low-angle thrust faults:
curvilinear
Intersection of folds with land
surface

Planar morphologic features

Uniform hill sides along fractures /

faults

Triangular-faceted spurs along faults

Geometry of planar surfaces is

described by uniform aspect and

constant slope values

Large elongated areas of uniform

aspect and slope with linear

boundaries can be associated with
faults

Depressions, pressure ridges, tilt of

surfaces, bulges with local maxima or

minima present along fault zones

Studies in Tectonic
geomorphology &
morphotectonics
Shaded-relief
/ hill-shade models
Accentuation of relief
Extraction of topographic lineaments,
fractures, morphotectonic elements etc.

3-D Image drape

Study of terrain features in 3-D

Digital cross-sections
Better comprehension of terrain features

Studies in Tectonic
geomorphology &
morphotectonics
Derivative maps:

Slope & Aspect maps : regional

morphotectonic evaluation
Trend analysis : to study tectonically
induced tilt
Curvature maps (planform and profile):
recognition and characterization of faults

Extraction of morphotectonic
features from DEM
Slope map
Slope is the first derivative of elevation and abrupt
changes in slope across the landscape may be
indicative of the presence of active faults in the
terrain. Lineaments seen in slope maps may be fault
scarps.

Extraction of
morphotectonic features
Slope map : escarpments have high slope
from DEM

Extraction of
morphotectonic features
Digital
profiling : longitudinal /
fromtopographic
DEM

cross profiles of mountain ranges and faults

Longitudinal profiles in uplifted area may
display young age of the landforms by
highlighting the presence of V-shaped valleys.
Transverse profiles across faults record

significant topographic and slope breaks and

facilitate measurement of escarpment
heights

Morphometric Indices as Indicators of Active

Tectonics: Mountain Front Sinuosity Index

Lmf
Ls

Morphometric Indices as Indicators of

Active Tectonics
Basin area = 532 km

Basin Asymmetry Factor

Right poly area = 345 km2

AF = 65%

Basin asymmetry factor (Af) can

be used to evaluate tectonic tilting
at the scale of a drainage basin. Af
is defined as:

Af = 100 (Ar / At)

Morphometric Indices as Indicators

of Active Tectonics:
Basin Asymmetry Factor of Shillong
Plateau

Morphometric Indices as
Indicators of Active Tectonics
Hypsometric Index (HI) =
(Mean EL Min EL)/ (Max EL Min EL)

Morphometric Indices as Indicators of Active

Tectonics:
Hypsometric curves

Morphometric Indices as Indicators of Active

Tectonics: valley floor width to valley height
Ratio of Valley-Floorratio
Width to
Valley Height
Vfw is the width of valley floor, Eld and Erd are the
respective elevations of the left and right valley
divides, and Esc is the elevation of the valley floor
Low Vf indicates active uplift,
values may range from 0.05
to 4.7

Himalayas: the abode of snow

The Eight Thousanders

club
Everest 8848
K2 8611

Kanchanjunga 8586
Lhotse 8516
Makalu 8462
Cho Oyu 8201
Dhaulagiri
8167
Manaslu 8156
Nanga Parbat 8126
Annapurna
8091
Karakorams

A no. of peaks with >8000

Early Silurian (444 ma)

Permian Trias Boundary (253 ma)

Early Cretaceous (130125 ma)

Convergence since
Late Cretaceous
Initial contact
( Eocene 38 my)
Rate of movement
180 mm/a to 50
mm/a

Continent
continent collision:
Indian & Eurasian plates
most tectonically active
region of the world
moderate to large
magnitude earthquakes
1905 Kangra (M 7.8)
1934 Bihar (M 8.4)
1950 Upp. Assam (M
8.5)
Prominent tectonically
controlled geomorphic
indicators

Tectonic
Subdivisions
Indus suture zone
Ophiolite melange : bedded cherts, scraped oceanic crust, Dras
Volcanics : Upp Cret to Upp Jurassic basalts, dacites, volcaniclastics,
pillow lavas, cherts
Indus Molasse: continental clastics, fluvials, lacustrines, post-collisional,
Eocene to post-Eocene
Central Himalayas
Tethys Himalayas: Folded, imbricated, weakly metamorphosed
sediments, Upper Paleozoic to Eocene components, greenschists,
eclogites
High Himalayan Crystalline Sequences: 30 km thick med to high grade
meta- sed. Intruded by Ordo (500 Ma) to Lr. Mio (22 Ma) granites .
Sed are
Upp Proterozoic to Lr. Cambrian , thrust over
Lesser Himalayas along MCT
Lesser Himalayas
Upp Prot to Lr Cenozoic detritals from passive Indian margin, granites,
rhyolites , are thrust over the Sub-Himalayas along the MBT
Sub-Himalayas

Main Tectonic Features

Collision zone (Inactive at present)

ISZ = Indus suture zone
MMT= Main mantle thrust
Tethys Himalayas & High Himalayas

thrust over Lesser Himalayas along

MCT (Main Central Thrust, largely
inactive)
Lesser Himalayas are thrust over SubHimalayas along MBT (inactive to
reactivated)

Main Tectonic Features

Himalayan Frontal
(Reverse) Fault / Thrust:
Sub-Himalayas thrust
over the Gangetic
plains
Most active structure

India Eurasia convergence rate: 44 to 61 mm / y

Thrusting beneath the Himalayas : 18 mm / y
Convergence taken by HFF : 10 15 mm / y
Remainder convergence : approx 20 mm / y taken by the area to the north

Profile Graph Title

6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
0

200,000

Profile Graph Sub title

400,000

600,000

800,000

HFF

MBT

1,000,000

MCT

1,200,000

ISZ

1,400,000

- Abrupt change in elevation

from Gangetic plains to

Sub-Himalayas
- Gradual change in
elevation from SubHimalayas to Lesser
Himalayas
- Abrupt Change in
elevation from Lesser
Himalayas to Great
Himalayas (~ 5000 m)
- Greater Himalayas form an
elevation front

Foreland

Crustal
rebound

Two Forelands &

basement uplifts

Greater
Himalayas
Siwaliks
Plains

Lesser Himalyas

Tibet

The Kali Gandaki River: The worlds deepest

gorge between Dhaulagiri & Annapurna

Steepest gradient:
N of MCT

No deflection of rivers while crossing the MCT, but many rivers flow parallel to
antiforms at HFF before breaching them

Hypsometric curve of Subansiri Basin

in Tibet and India

Manifestations of the Himalayan Frontal Fault

- As antiformal ridges faulted on their flanks & development of
duns: synformal valleys between growing anticlines
- As northerly dipping imbricate thrusts where antiformal ridges
and intervening duns are absent

Absence of anticlinal ridges &

duns, HFF as imbricate thrust
planes

Antiformal ridges & Duns along HFF

Janauri anticline: between Beas and Sutlej

Mohand anticline: between Yamuna & Ganga
Between Ghaghra & Bagmati
Jia Bhareli
Itanagar

Beas

Sutlej

MBT

Lithologic
discrimination
TT

MS(BG)
K

Gr+Gn
D
S
S

DiT
TT

Sim

at
b
r
a
aP

F
FH

Fan
Surface

Gondwanas

Ziro

MBT

Tale

M
S(
BG

Miri

iri
M

FHF

TT

DiT

TT

MB
T
DiT

FH
F

Imbricate thrusts
with piggy back
structure

Structure and Tectonics

Lineaments

A.

Himalayan structural trends and thrusts (ENE

WSW & E - W, maxima at N60E)

B.

Conjugate set of Shear Fractures (Wrench Faults)

i.

N S (maxima at N 5 E) with sinistral sense of

movement

ii.

WNW ESE (maxima at N65W) with dextral

sense of movement

Orientation of max. principal horizontal stress N30W-S30E

Maxima of thrusts occurs at right angles to this direction (i.e., at

N60E)

N5E

N30W

UST
R
TH

XIS
A
LD
FO

Dextral Shear
Model

EN
AB
GR

N65W

Alluvial Fans

Kimin
Formation

Subansiri Formation

Dafa Formation

Miri belt
Gondwana belt

Bomdila belt

High relief due to:

1.A no. of
composite
thrust planes
forming
vertically
stacked
system of
ramps
2.Ramps
facilitate large
component of
vertical
movement
along them

The left-lateral Chaman

Fault

Extensive terrace cultivation

1500 km of
crustal
shortening
Zone of
deformation
3000 km wide
2400 km of
missing cont
crust
subduction of
cont crust
squeezing of
Indo China by
the indenter
Folding,
thrusting,