isostasy, gravity, magnetism, and internal heat

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Earths gravity field

isostasy

equilibrium of adjacent blocks of brittle crust

floating on underlying upper mantle

outer layers of Earth divided into 2 based on their strength

lithosphere: rigid, solid outer layer (brittle) --strong
crust and uppermost mantle
asthenosphere: underlying denser, heat-softened,
partially melted (plastic) -- weak
upper mantle
DO NOT CONFUSE WITH
CRUST AND MANTLE
WHICH ARE BASED
ON COMPOSITION
transition from lithosphere to asthenosphere reflects
temperature and rocks response to increased temperature

isostasy

equilibrium of adjacent blocks of brittle crust

floating on underlying upper mantle
i.e. mass above a certain depth must be the same

think of wood blocks in water

block that sticks up higher
also extends farther in water
density of wood < density of water
compensation depth
for masses to be the same above the isostatic compensation depth:
mass in column 1 = mass in column 2
masses in both columns in 2 dimensions equal
(density wood x thickness wood) + (density water x thickness water)
density water > density wood
wood that replaces water in the column
must be thicker than water it replaces

isostasy

same concept as wood blocks applies to lithospheric blocks

(crust and uppermost mantle)
floating on asthenosphere above the compensation depth
continental crust is
less dense than
oceanic crust
crust is
less dense than
mantle

compensation depth
mass in column 1 = mass in column 2 = mass in column 3
density mantle > density oceanic crust > density continental crust
if more mantle in column -- column will be thinner
if more continental crust in column -- column will be thicker

implication is that mountains have roots -- crust is thicker below them

isostasy
a more detailed view of density differences

include
sea water
&
sediments

isostasy
leads to isostatic adjustment if mass is redistributed

crust
mantle

X
A
eros
ion o
f mo
unta
in

note mountain and

crustal root below it
erosion redistributes rock
from mountain (high)
to sediment deposited
in basin (low)

less mass on mountain

causes uplift of
crust below mountain
(thins and rises)
and
A B C
subsidence of basin
as mountain erodes,
as mass of
column becomes shorter thus,
sediment is added
mantle mass in column
increases over time
effect on mass columns
(mass A = mass B = mass C)

A
X

isostasy
see isostatic adjustment today from load of glaciers on
crust during last glaciation and unloading from melting
(possible because response of asthenosphere is slow)

process is called post-glacial rebound

isostasy

post-glacial rebound still occurs in Canada & northern Europ

i.e. crust is rising -- (not isostatically balanced)
(can measure uplift rates with highly precise GPS receivers--mms/yr)

amount of uplift since glaciation

Polar Glaciers Melting Animation

From: http://www.uni-geophys.gwdg.de/~gkaufman/work/onset/onset_ice3g.html

gravity
gravitational force between two objects determined
by their masses and distance between them

gravity

differences in density of materials (rocks) in Earths interio

produces small differences in local gravity field (anomalie
can be measured with a gravimeter (attraction of spring to mass)

dense material
attracts
and extends spring

mass uniform
and spring
is neutral

void (cave) has no

mass to attract
spring

can find buried, dense things (abandoned gas station tanks)

and empty spaces (caves -- dont build)

gravity

density differences also occur over larger areas: mountain

compensation depth

mass above compensation depth is uniform (isostatically balanced)

--no excess or deficiency in mass; no gravity anomalies--

gravity

mass above compensation depth is not uniform

-- excess mass of dense mantle below mountain (no crustal roo

compensation depth

generates increased gravity and, thus, a positive gravity anomaly

gravity
mass above compensation depth is not uniform
-- deficiency of mass below low area (too much crust)

compensation depth

generates decreased gravity and, thus, a negative gravity anomaly

Earths gravity field measured from space

mass in Earth pulls on satellites as they orbit,
causing wobbles in orbit paths, which are measured
--amount of wobble related to amount of mass--

GRACE
--NASA-mission to
examine
Earths
gravity
field

Earths magnetic field

surrounds the Earth

has north and south magnetic poles

is detected by compasses
is recorded in rocks and minerals as they cool
is generated in the Earths liquid outer core as
it spins and produces electrical currents
Earths field similar
to that for
bar magnet (left)
magnetic N and S
is not the same
as geographic
N and S poles
(bar magnet tilted)

Earths magnetic field

changes through time

change in magnetic north relative

to true north

1580-1970
1831-2001

consequence of rotation of outer core

migration of magnetic north

Earths magnetic field

reverses over time (north and south poles flip)
--magnetic field lines reverse-normal polarity: north is north and
south is south
reversed polarity: north is south and
south is north
after next reversal, compass needle will point south

S
N

Earths magnetic field

how do rocks and minerals acquire magnetism?

rocks and minerals at high temperatures (e.g. molten

must cool through their Curie temperatures
above Curie temperature, atoms are random
below Curie temperature, atoms align in domains
that are independent of each other
below Curie temperature, atoms align with
magnetic field if one is present (e.g. Earth)

Earths magnetic field

how do rocks and minerals acquire magnetism?

rocks and minerals that cool through Curie temperature

and stay below that temperature through time
record magnetic field AT THE TIME OF THEIR COOLING
paleomagnetism: study of ancient
magnetic fields in rocks
--reconstruction of past fields--

magnetite common mineral in basalt

Earths magnetic field

examine thick sequences of basalts to identify reversals
through time (paleomagnetism)

thick flood basalt sequence in Brazil

Earths magnetic field

re-construct normal and reversed for lava sequence

Earths magnetic field

create time-scale for magnetism
from many observations

see that lengths of

magnetic periods
are not uniform
likely relates to
turbulent flow
of outer core

blue = normal polarity

red = reverse polarity

black = normal polarity

blue = reverse polarity

Earths magnetic field

what happens during reversals?
geologic evidence
suggests that
reversals occur
quickly
(a few 1000 yrs)

computer simulations
indicate that
transitions are
chaotic with
many magnetic poles
in odd places
i.e. not N or S

reversed (orange north)

normal (blue north)

transitional (chaotic)

Earths magnetic field

magnetic anomalies occur in local field from magnetic ro

below surface (similar to gravity anomalies)

magnetic material
below adds
magnetism
and creates
positive anomaly

magnetic rocks
include
iron ore,
gabbro,
granite

Earths magnetic field

removal of magnetic material from near surface

causes negative anomaly (example is normal faultin

Earths internal heat

geothermal gradient: temperature increases with depth

in the Earth--most dramatic in crust; tapers off deeper
despite increase in temperature, rocks do not melt
because pressure also increases with depth
(big increase in T in outer core--molten)

crust: rapid
increase
in T
(25/km)
slower
increase
deeper
(1/km)

Earths internal heat

heat flow: gradual loss of heat from interior to surface

heat sources must be in shallow crust for crustal gradient

magma bodies
uranium-rich igneous rock (decay of U, Th, K generates heat)

Earths internal heat

heat flow is reasonably similar over oceans and continen

heat comes from different sources in two regions
continental crust: radioactive decay in granites
oceanic crust: mantle sources (no granite in oceanic crust)

Earths internal heat

observed heat flow at Earths surface shows gross patter

(red is warm; blue is cold)
red at mid-ocean ridges
blue over oldest parts
of continents

Earths internal heat

gradual loss of heat from interior to surface causes

mantle convection as mechanism of heat transfe

upwelling (rising of warm material) in mantle below mid-ocean rid

loss of heat as material moves laterally at surface
downwellling (sinking of cooled material) at subduction zones