Glass

Introduction

Material, usually blends of metallic oxides, predominantly silica

which do not crystallise when cooled from liquid to the solid
state
Transparency is due to the non-crystalline or amorphous
structure of glass
For construction application, glass products is classified in the
BS 952-1: 1995
In UK, thousands of tonnes of glass are recycled a year as
domestic waste
Recycled glass can not be reproduced for window glass
Yet, recycled glass is used for architectural waste glass e.g.
decorative paving surface

History

Known in Egypt for 7000 years

Originated from Assyria and Phoenicia
First use was glaze stone beads
Later was glass beads
In 1500 BC, glass was used to make hollow vessels

Composition

Made from
- sand (silica)
- soda (sodium oxide)
- lime (calcium oxide)
Soda acts as flux to permit silica to melt at lower temperature
Limestone improves weathering properties
Other elements may be added to give the glass special
properties or colour

Composition (cont.)

Colours derived from the addition of metallic compound to the

melt i.e.
- blue by the addition of cobalt
- blue or red by the addition of copper
- green by the addition of iron or chromium
- white by the addition of tin or arsenic
- ruby- red by the addition of gold chloride
- clear by the addition of antimony or manganese, which
decolourise the green colouration caused by iron impurities
within the sand

Composition (cont.)

Benefits of Using
Glass

Allows entry of natural light

Provides views of exterior environment
Entry of sunlight provides warmth

Disadvantages and/or
Design Considerations

Limits occupants privacy

Lower resistance to thermal transmission
- heat in summer
- cold in winter
Initial and operating costs

History of Glass
Used for centuries
Manufacturing

2 types of glass in 10th century

Early process
1. Crown glass
- based on blowing technique evolved in Assyria around
100 BC
- then, the Romans developed by blowing glass into mould
- 4 kg heated glass blown into sphere using blow pipe
- reheated and spun on punty (solid iron rod)
- sphere becomes a disk
- cooled and cut into pieces

History of Glass
Manufacturing (cont.)

A glass crown disk produced via blowing technique

History of Glass
Manufacturing (cont.)

Manufacturing processes of crown glass

Use of crown glass for greenhouse design

History of Glass
2. Cylinder glass
Manufacturing
(cont.)
- heated glass blown into sphere
- swung like a pendulum
- elongated into a cylinder
- ends cut off, split lengthwise
- reheated

History of Glass
Manufacturing (cont.)

Heated glass blown into sphere

History of Glass
Manufacturing (cont.)

Cylinder glass

History of Glass (cont.)

3 types of glass in 20th century
1. Drawn glass
- replaced cylinder glass
- flat sheets of glass drown directly from a molten glass
container
- produce a ribbon of glass
- cut to lengths
- had manufacturing distortions
- the uneven surface of glass is visible in the reflection of
the window pane

History of Glass (cont.)

Drawn glass with reflection

History of Glass (cont.)

Uneven surface of drawn glass

History of Glass (cont.)

2. Plate glass
- to improve drawn glass
- process:
a) molten glass cast into frames
b) spread into sheets by rollers
c) cooled
d) each side ground/polished to overcome
distortions
- larger sheets of high optical quality
- costly (until process was mechanized)
- manufacturing process now obsolete
- replaced by float glass process

History of Glass (cont.)

Plate glass

History of Glass (cont.)

3. Float glass
- invented in 1959 in England
- produced in US in 1963
- become a worldwide standard
- largely replaced drawn and plate glass
- produce by floating the glass across a bath of molten tin
- benefits:
a) high optical quality compared to plate glass
b) brilliant surface finish
c) economical
d) virtually all flat glass produced

History of Glass (cont.)

Float glass

History of Glass (cont.)

Float glass

History of Glass (cont.)

Float glass

Float Glass Manufacturing

A float glass plant manufactures 5000 tonnes of glass per week,

operating continuously for several years
A furnace produces a continuous molten glass at 1100 oc
Continuous molten glass flows across a shallow bath of molten
tin within hydrogen and nitrogen to prevent oxidation of the
surface of molten tin
The flow produces a flat and parallel ribbon of glass
Reduce the temperature gradually until 600 oc
Speed of bath flow controls the thickness

Float Glass Manufacturing

(cont.)
Glass passes through 200 m annealing furnace, leaving a fire

polished glass
Annealing is a process of heating and slow cooling the glass to
make it tougher and less brittle
Annealing also gives curvature to the glass
Wash the glass
Discard substandard glass for recycling
The computer control the glass cutting and edges removal
Stacking, warehousing and dispatch

School of Architecture . Building . Design

Float Glass Manufacturing

(cont.)

Float Glass Manufacturing

(cont.)

A process of forming float glass

Float Glass Manufacturing

(cont.)

Float glass

Float Glass Manufacturing

(cont.)

Float glass

Float Glass for Construction

Industry

Thickness: 2 - 25 mm
Mostly surface modified glass i.e.
- incorporates metal ions into glass via float glass process
- under vacuum by magnetically enhanced cathodic sputtering
- spray the surface with metal oxides or silicon

Float glass sprayed with metal oxides or silicon

on the surface

Types of Glass

There are 3 types within the float glass

Varies due to different surface treatment which determines their
optical quality
a) sheet glass
- has an average optical properties
- most used type due to its economy
- commonly used for window glazing

Types of Glass (cont.)

Sheet glass

Types of Glass (cont.)

Sheet glass

Types of Glass (cont.)

b) plate glass
- additional polishing work applied on both surfaces
- better optical quality
- clearer, undistorted vision and reflection

Types of Glass (cont.)

Plate glass

Types of Glass (cont.)

c) float glass
- made from floating molten glass across a bed of
liquidified metal
- forms perfectly flat and parallel surface
- additional fire finishes for better optical quality windows,
showcases, mirrors, furniture and table tops

Types of Glass (cont.)

Float glass

Sheet Glass

Standard thickness: 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15 and 19 mm

Maximum size: 3210 x 6000 mm
Instead of float glass, sheet glass is also available in:
- blown glass- blown glass with air bubbles gives an antique
appearance

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Curved sheet glass

forming
an oval glass
Process
of producing
blownroof
glass

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Blown glass ceiling

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Melting blown glass

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- drawn glass- clear
- for conservation work to replace old glass

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Application of drawn glass for disabled ramp

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- laminated glass - bonded to float glass with resin

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Laminated glass expands at 120 0c

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- curved sheet glass- curved by heating annealed glass to
soften the glass to the required shape
- for architectural feature glass
- a.k.a bent glass which can be
sandblasted, toughened, laminated or
interlayer-coloured

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Curved sheet glass forming an oval glass roof

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- clear white glass - slightly green due to impurities of iron oxide
- colourless compared to standard glass
which appears green at exposed polished
edges

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- embossed pattern glass - 3, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mm
- offers obscuration and privacy
based on depth and design of pattern
- client can choose the orientation
- can be wired, toughened, laminated
or incorporated into double glazing
for thermal, acoustic or safety e.g.
bronze tinted glass

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Embossed patterned glasses

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- screen printed glass - screen printed the white or coloured
ceramic onto clear or tinted float glass
- then, toughened and heat soak to fuse
the ceramic enamel into glass surface
- offers solar transmission and privacy
- colourfast and abrasion-resistant

Screen printed glass

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- decorative etched and sandblasted glass - low obscuration
- not suitable for high humidity
area as condensation or water
causes temporary loss of pattern
- oil, grease and finger marks are
difficult to remove
- surface finish of sandblasted
glass is less smooth

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Decorative etched glasses

Sheet Glass (cont.)

School of Architecture . Building . Design

Sandblasted glasses

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- decorative coloured glass - 3D effect comes from fixing
ultraviolet sensitive adhesive with
colour bevelled glass
- up to 4 different coloured interlayers
- same impact resistance and
acoustic insulation with standard
clear laminated

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- Georgian wired glass - a 13 mm eletrically welded steel wire
mesh between 2 ribbons of molten glass
- pieces remain held together when
cracked
- crack if sprayed with water when hot
- wire mesh holds glass in position
except if the wire affected by corrosion
- prevent passage of smoke and flame
- easily cut
- can be laminated with other glass, yet
cannot be toughened
- used as safety glass according to Part
N, Building Regulations but not to BS
6206: 1981

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Georgian wired glass

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- toughened glass - 4 to 5 times stronger
- cannot be cut or worked
- cutting, drilling holes, grinding and polishing
done before toughening
- withstand extreme temperature and sudden
shock
- shattered into small granules which are not
likely to cause injury
- safety glass
- tend to spontaneous break during heatsoaking

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Process for manufacturing toughened glass

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- heat-strengthened glass - similar process of manufacturing to
toughened glass, yet no heatsoaking
- breaks into large pieces
- not a safety glass
- used for roofing panel

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- laminated glass - bonding 2 or more layers of glass together
with a plastic interlayer of polyvinyl butyral
sheet or a polymethyl methacrylate lowviscosity resin
- lamination increased impact resistance
- a safety glass
- e.g. anti-bandit glass, bullet-resistant glass
- can incorporate X-ray or ultraviolet light
control

Laminated glass anti-bandit and bullet resistant

Sheet Glass (cont.)

- fire-resistant glass - classified into
a) non-insulating glass
- resists up to 1000 0c
- prevents passage of flame, hot gases
and smoke
- allows heat transmission by radiation
and conduction
- spreads fire if occurred
- remained transparent in fire
- break up into harmless granules on
strong impact if necessary for escape

Sheet Glass (cont.)

b) insulating glass
- from float glass laminated with
intumescent or gel materials
- intumescent laminated glass has clear
interlayer when exposed to fire
- gel insulated glass absorbs heat by
evaporating water and producing
insulating crust
- laminated with tinted glass, combined
with other patterned or solar control
glasses
- less thicker than most fire-resistant
glass

Sheet Glass (cont.)

c) partially insulating glass
- triple lamination of float glass with 1
intumescent interlayer and 1 polyvinyl
butyral layer
- offers modest increase in fire
resistance over non-insulating glass
- surface treatment increased heat
reflectance

Sheet Glass (cont.)

Fire-resistant glass with intumescent material laminates

Non-Sheet Glass

Available in:
- glass fibres categorised into 2:
a) continuous filament for production of glass-fibre
reinforced materials e.g. GRP
(glass-fibre reinforced polyester),
GRC (glass-fibre reinforced
cement) or GRG (glass-fibre
reinforced gypsum)
b) glass wool by via crown process

Non-Sheet Glass (cont.)

- cast glass casted and pressed into shapes for glass blocks
and extruded sections
- categorised into 3:
a) profiled sections clear or colour
- with or without stainless steel
longitudinal wires
- horizontal or vetical
- single or double glazing or as roofing
system

Profiled glass sections

Non-Sheet Glass (cont.)

Double-glazing glass

Non-Sheet Glass (cont.)

b) glass blocks non-loadbearing walls and partitions
- square, rectangular, circular shapes
- can be curved, solar reflective, fire
resistant by laying with mortar, vandal
and bullet proof, laid with sealant

Non-Sheet Glass (cont.)

Glass blocks

Non-Sheet Glass (cont.)

c) glass pavers single layer or hollow blocks
- require RC for site installation
- architectural features e.g. domes
- foamed glass insulation material

Non-Sheet Glass (cont.)

Application of glass pavers for roofing systems

Glass Properties

Appearance
- ordinary glass is transparent and colourless but it can be
translucent or coloured
Density
- 2560 kg/m3
Melting point
- approximately 1500 0C
Durability
- extremely durable in normal condition
Strength
- elastic up to its breaking point where it is completely brittle
and weak in tension
- varies depending on manufacture

Glass Properties (cont.)

Thermal movement
- lower than materials in which it is fixed
- yet, allowance must be given for movement
Thermal insulation
- good heat conductor
- transparent to spectrum of solar radiation but opaque to longwave infra-red radiation normally emitted by heated bodies
- leads to green-house effect
- use of double glazing helps improving thermal insulation of
glass

Glass Properties (cont.)

Sound insulation
- varies with thickness
- for better sound insulation, double glazing or laminated glass
is
necessary
Gaskets function
- seal the glass
- function as first line of defense
- isolate glass from abrasion
- allow for thermal expansion/contraction
- accommodate structure/support deflection

Types of Glass in
Construction
1. Patterned glass
Variety of patterns available in the surface finishes
Varying degrees of obscurity
May be clear, tinted or rough on one or both sides
Used where diffused light patterns of objects are needed, but
light transmittance is required

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Patterned glasses

Types of Glass in
Construction
(cont.)
2. Wired glass

Reinforced with wire mesh which is embedded centrally in the

thickness of the glass
The wire does not increase strength of glass but helps to hold
glass pieces together in the event of breakage
Used in skylight for theft prevention, fire protection and areas
where breakage might be dangerous

Wired glass for fire and emergency escape

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)
3. Laminated glass
Made by sandwiching a layer of tough, transparent polyvinyl
interlayer between 2 or more layers of glass
Increases the number of laminations the glass
Can be made bullet resistance
Increases thickness of plastic layer
Improves sound resistance
Reduces heat and glare by tinting plastic inner layer
Known as safety glass e.g. hurricane resistance glass
Testing is large missile impact test

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Excellent break-in protection of laminated glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Cross section of laminated glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Cross section of laminated glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)
4. Tempered glass
Made of plate or float glass through re-heating and sudden
cooling
3 - 5 times stronger than ordinary glass in terms of impact and
loading
Better bending stresses when broken
Disintegrates into fragments which are small and without sharp
edges
Can be manufactured in any shapes but can not be cut once it
has been tempered
Used extensively in sport arenas, sliding door, curtain walls and
doors for safety and security purposes

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Breakage and shatter of tempered glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)
5. Heat absorbent glass
Mixed with chemicals during its manufacture to provide a range
of colours - green, bluish-green or gray
Absorbs a large percentage of heat throughout the glass
thickness
Reduces penetration of heat to buildings interior
Commonly used in curtain walls and large faade in public and
office buildings

Mechanism of solar gain control with heat

absorbing and heat reflecting glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)
6. Tinted and reflective glass
Reduces glare from sunlight
Reduces solar heat gain
Architectural look - aesthetics
14% - 75% penetrates to interior, the rest reflected to outer side
compared to clear float glass with 85% and more penetrates to
interior
Lower cooling costs
Manufactured by adding chemical elements to molten glass
Variety colours - grays, bronzes, blues, greens, golds etc

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Tinted glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Reflective glass

Reflective glass

Reflective glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)
7. Heat reflective glass
Coated with micro layer of metallic firm that are bonded to the
glass surface
Reflects suns energy away from interior
Very effective in heat repelling
8. Reflective glass
Thin films of metal or metal oxide placed on the glass surface
Film purpose - reflect sunlight by reducing solar heat gain
- changes appearance through coloured mirror
effect

Types of Glass in
Construction
(cont.)
9. Insulating glass

Also known as double glazing glass

A built-up unit of 2 layers of glass with cavity space filled with
clean dry air between the glasses
Edge of the glass may be sealed with protective aluminium
frame or by fusing together the 2 glass panes
Superior in thermal insulation and noise reduction
Used for curtain walls and windows as sound dividers
Component
- spacer (spline): separates the glass, often metallic
- air space - dry air or inert gas e.g. argon
- sealant - seals unit, prevents air escape and moisture
penetration
- glass - clear, reflective and/or tinted

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Double-glazing glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Double-glazing glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Double-glazing glass

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)
10. Glass block
Comprises of 2 separate halve which are heated-sealed
together to form a hollow unit
Most surface are patterned and some are coloured
Provides reasonably high thermal and sound
Diffuses direct daylight
May be used for decorative dividers, exterior walls and interior
walls as light transmission and enclosure desired

Types of Glass in
Construction (cont.)

Application of glass blocks for bathroom