Computer Networks

Department of computer Engineering
Guru Nanak Dev Polytechnic.,

Ludhiana.
06/15/15
COMPUTER ENGINEERING-1997
COMPUTER NETWORKS :
Number of Slides
6283
:1000
TWO floppies includes 1000 Slides.
06/15/15
Features of Computer Networks

We are very close to each other
by Networking which is globally
connected.We can share every
type of information world wide
very easily and in a short
interval of time.
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Features of Computer Networks

Resource sharing
Exchange information
Communication
Data integrity
Share Applications
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You may Learn

Networking and Administration Under
following NOS
Novell NetWare
Windows NT
06/15/15
Almost all the companies where computer

is essential you may find Networking either
it is Novell,Windows NT or UNIX.
This subject is very important for computer professionals.
06/15/15
Teaching Scheme
Total Number of Lectures 4 per Week
Practical 4 per Week
4+4=8
Theory 15 credits and 10 marks for Practical .

Total No. of credits are 15+10=25(Internal Assessment )
75 +25 =100 (External Assessment)

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1st CHAPTER
WHAT IS NETWORK
MODELS OF NETWORK COMPUTING
NETWORK MODELS
LAN,MAN&WAN
NETWORK SERVICES
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2nd CHAPTER
STANDARDS
OSI Reference MODEL
OSI PHYSICAL LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI DATA LINK LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI NETWORK LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI TRANSPORT LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI SESSION LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI PRESENTATION LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI APPLICATION LAYER CONCEPTS
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3rd CHAPTER
CABLE MEDIA
PUBLIC & PRIVATE NETWORK SERVICES
CONNECTING HARDWARE
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10
4th CHAPTER
DATA TRANMISSION
DIGITAL AND ANALOG SIGNAL
BASEBAND &BROADBAND TRANSMISSION
MULTIPLEXING
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4 CHAPATER
MODELS &PROTOCOLS
NETWORK IPX/SPX
INTRANET PROTOCOL
APPLE TALK
DIGITAL NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
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6th CHAPATER
ARCNET SPECIFICATION
ETHERNET SPECIFICATION
TOKEN RING SPECIFICATION
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13
7th CHAPTER
NETWORK CONNECTIVITY DEVICES
NICs,HUBs,REPEATERS,MULTIPLEXERS,MODES
ROUTERS
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8th CHAPATER
PRINT SERVICES
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15
9th CHAPTER
PROTECTING DATA
KEEPING RECORDS
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Evaluation Scheme
Study Scheme
HRS/Week Internal Assessment
Th Pr
3
Tot
6
Th
15
Pr
10
Tot
25
External Assessment
Marks
Th Hrs Pr Hrs Tot

75
3
100
25 3
Ext.Int
125
Minimum Passing Marks 30 out of 75

Minimum Passing Marks 10 out of 25
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Style of Examination
Theory Paper
Total Marks (75 Th) Duration (3 Hrs)
Passing Marks 30
Multiple Choice, True False, Fill in the
blanks, Short Answer Type and Descriptive
Answer Questions.
You have to attempt 5 out of 8.
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Style of Examination
Practical
Total Marks 25
Passing Marks 10
Duration 3 Hrs
Practical performance, Viva, Theory test

and working File on the bases of mentioned
above student may get marks.
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List of Practical
Introduction to CRAMPING TOOL
Introduction to various types of connectors
and type Wires.
Installation of LAN Card.
Installation of NOS Windows NT (SERVER) .
Configuring Workstations with Server
Administration of Windows NT
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Books and references

Computer Networks :Andrews S
Tanenbaum
Network Technologies : Jaiswal
Concept of Networking : Barry Nance
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1st CHAPTER
WHAT IS NETWORK
MODELS OF NETWORK COMPUTING
NETWORK MODELS
LAN,MAN&WAN
NETWORK SERVICES
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COMUTER NETWORKS:
Computer Network can be defined
as
interconnected
collection
of
autonomous computers.
When two or more system are connect
together and they may share information
are said under Networking.
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Networking
Two computers are said to be
interconnected,
if they are:-
Able to exchange information.

The connection need not be via copper wire;
Fiber optics, microwaves, and communication
satellites can also be used.
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Stand alone
If one computer can forcibly start, stop
or control another one, the computers
are not autonomous.
A system with one control unit & many

slaves is not a network; nor is a large
computer with remote printers and
terminals.
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Difference between Distribute

systems & Computer network
The key distinction is that in a
distributed system :
The existence of multiple autonomous
computer is transparent (i.e not visible) to
the user. it looks like a virtual uniprocessor .
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Difference between
Distributed systems &
Computer
network
All location of jobs to processors and files to
disks, movement between files between
where they are stored & where they are
needed, and all other system functions must
be automatic rather performed by the
operating system.
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Difference between Distributed

systems & Computer network
With a network, Users must explicitly log

into one machine.
Explicitly submit jobs remotely, explicitly
move files around and generally handle all
the network management personally.
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Difference between
Distributed systems &
Computer
In a distributed
system is a
network:
software
system built on top of a network.

The software gives it a high degree of
cohesiveness and transparency.
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CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORK
ACCORDING TO SCALE
An alternative Criterion for classifying
networks is their scale. In the coming slide
we give a classification of multiple
processor system arranged by their
physical size.
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ACCORDING
TO SCALE
Distribution
of Network
according to
Physical Distance between processors:
Interprocessor Processor located Example

distance
in same
0.1 m
circuit board
Data flow machine
1m
system
Multicomputer
room
Local area network
10 m
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ACCORDING TO SCALE
Distribution of Network according to
distance
in same
100 mbuilding Local area network

1 km campus Local area network
10 km
city
Metropolitan area network
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ACCORDING TO SCALE
Distribution of Network according to
distance
in same
100 km
1000 km
100000 km
country Wide area network

continentWide area network
planet The internet
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ACCORDING TO SCALE
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS: Local area networks, generally called LANs ,
are privately owned networks within a single
building or campus to a few kilometers in size.
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ACCORDING TO SCALE
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS: They are widely used to connect
personal
computers
&
company
offices & factory to share resources &

information.
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ACCORDING TO SCALE
LANs are generally distinguished from
other networks by three characteristics :
1) Their size
2) Their Transmission technology
3) Their Topology
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Computing Models and

Network Development
Computer Networking technologies have
developed because of the requirements of
the following data processing Models
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Network Development
Data processing Models are:-
DISTRIBUTED DATA PROCESSING

CENTALIZED DATA PROCESSING
COLLABORATIVE DATA PROCESSING
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Network Development
DDP
DDP stands for Distributed data processing
Distributed
described
processing
systems
is
with
used
to
multiple
processors
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Network Development
Advantages of DDP:-
Cost efficiency
shared resources
User-control of computer facility, resulting
in shorter response time.
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Network Development
DDP
DDP has become popular because the
users have more control over individual
data processing needs.
A DDP system typically uses many
minicomputers and microcomputers.
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Computing Models and Network

Development
DDP: Response time for many application are

shorted in a DDP.
When a DDP system has its management
decentralized, it is referred to as a fully
distributed system.
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Network Development
Disadvantages of DDP:-
A loss of organizational control.

Redundancies of resources and data.
Compatibility problems.
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Network Development
Unskilled users.
Support difficulties.
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Network Development
Disadvantages of DDP: Loss of organizational control: Problems
can occur with DDP system If it is not
managed properly.
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Network Development
Disadvantages of DDP: Redundancies of resources and data:
Uncontrolled data redundancy can lead to
differences in data at the distributed sites.
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Network Development
Disadvantages of DDP: This problem is difficult and expensive to
resolve.
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Network Development
Compatibility problems: If the distributed

sites do not coordinate their selection of
h/w and s/w compatibility problems can
arise.
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Network Development
Unskilled users:- This problem occurs when

data processing is distributed.
Support difficulties:- Maintaining a separate

support staff at each location can be too
expensive
for
some
organizations.
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Network Development
Centralized Data Processing:-
In centralized computing,the mainframe

provides
all
the
data
storage
and
computational abilities while the terminal

is simply a remote I/P or O/P device.
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Network Development
Collaborative Data Processing:-
A new model is called Collaborative Data

Processing is becoming an important
trend.
It is also called cooperative processing.
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Network Development
Collaborative Data Processing:
It is a synergic type of distributed

computing where network computers
share processing abilities.
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Network Development
Collaborative Data Processing:-
Instead of communicating data between

computers ,it uses two or more computers
to do the same task.
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LANs Specifications
LAN is a combination of
Computers
LAN Cables
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LANs Specifications
Network Adapter Cards
NOS
LAN application Software
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Local Area Network

FEATURES OF A LOCAL AREA
NETWORKS :
On the whole a LAN can be
characterized by the following:
All the user can share information, program , &
equipment.
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NETWORKS
Share Files
Transfer Files
Access information and files
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NETWORKS
Share applications
Simultaneous key data into an
application
Share Printers
Use electronic Mail
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NETWORKS
Simultaneous key data punch
information exchange
Data integration
resource sharing
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TERMS RELATED TO LAN

10 BASE:- 10 Megabits per second,
baseband-coaxial cable.
10 BASE:- 10 Megabits per seconds,

baseband-twisted pair.
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ACTIVE HUB:- A device that accepts,
amplifies & forwards Data Transmission
along a network.
BROADBAND:- A Type of cable that can

carries more than one signal at a time.
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ARCNET ( ATTACHED RESOURCE COMPUTER
NETWORK )
A inexpensive disk top computer
networking system.that uses Hubs to
connect workstations
and Printers
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BNC
Bayonet Connector
Ethernet
standard networking protocol
and connector.
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HUB: The point in a network where a Bunch
of circuits are connected.
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Passive HUB
Passive HUB: A device use to make connection between
nodes on a network, but does not act upon
the signal in any way.
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TTS
Transaction Tracking System
Raid
Redundant Arrays of
Independent/Inexpensive Disks.
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VLM
Virtual Load able Module. Software that
controls
Limited set of processes a
NetWare.
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CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
collision detection.
TTS
Transmission Tracking System
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LOGIN
To establish a connection with user on
a network
Logout
To end a connection used on network
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Wireless LANs
Introduction
Wireless LANs provide a new layer of
flexibility
and
services
to
environments and to users that can
not be well served by the traditional
wired LAN.
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Wireless LANs
Introduction
Wireless LANs represent a spectrum
capabilities that support limited
distance logical coverage, moderate
distance metropolitan coverage,and
longer distance coverage.
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Wireless LANs
Needs:
With wireless LANs, the roving users
can be indirect two-way contact with
the full resources of the enterprises
information system.
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Wireless LANs
Needs:
Wireless LANs can move to higher
power plateaus which will extend their
distances from hundreds of feet to
several tens of thousands of feet.
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Wireless LANs
Wireless Coupling
Server
User/client
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Wireless LANs
Components: Wireless
LANs
components:-
have
two
Waveform transmitter.
Waveform receiver.
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Wireless LANs
Components: The transmitters and receivers can
use a variety of media and frequencies
to support their services.
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Wireless LANs
Components: Transmitter:-The wave transmitters
convert the signals of the computer
system into the waveform motions and
send them into the air medium.
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Wireless LANs
Components: Receivers:-The wave form receivers
extract the signals from the air and
perform review, recognition, and
acceptance processing on them.
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Wireless LANs
Wireless receiving
devices: Laptop Or Notebook Computers.
Personal Digital Assistants (PDA).
Wireless Resource Interfacing.
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Wireless LANs
Wireless receiving devices: Laptop or Notebook computers: Provides
a ready platform for the interconnection
to a wireless network. Highly portable,
battery run, and built to go anywhere.
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Wireless LANs
Wireless receiving devices: PDAs:- Highly portable but of limited
self-contained
capability
which
makes them dependent on using a
network to reach and interact with
organizational information resources.
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Wireless LANs
Wireless receiving devices: Wireless resource interfacing:-The
device will provide its standard
resource services, but the users will
be able to select and access the unit
via the wireless network.
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Wireless LANs
Transceivers:- Perform the transmit
and receive functions
wireless LAN world.
within
The units can take a signal request

from a unit and transmit the data
packet into the wireless medium.
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Wireless LANs
Transceivers:-
The
receive
portion of the unit can receive the
transmissions, determine who they
are for, and take those addressed to a
specific station into its operating
environment.
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Wireless LANs
Coupling Wireless LANs: The coupling of wireless LANs involves
connecting the computing units such
as,clients and the servers to the
wireless medium.
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Wireless LANs
Coupling Wireless LANs: The coupling of units for wireless LANs
can be don at many levels.
The simplest of them is a one-to-one
coupling between a portable client and a
fixed server system.
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Wireless LANs
Wireless LANs Vs Wired LANs: The major difference between wireless
and wired LANs is that they are not
connected to wire or cable and users
have extensive flexibility to move about
and still receive services from their LAN
world.
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Wireless LANs
Wireless LANs Vs Wired LANs: Wireless LANs offer the same user or
client services as available from wired
LANs.
Wireless connections should
transparent to the end user.
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be
92
Wireless LANs
Wireless LANs Vs Wired LANs: As compared to wired LAN, wireless LAN
services are found in the slightly
slower
speeds
of
information
transfer,the problems of security of
transmission.
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Wireless LANs
Transactions
Queries
File Transfers
Outputs
User/client
Server
Wireless LAN Services
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Wireless LANs
Wireless LANs Vs Wired LANs: The security of wireless LANs can also be
strengthened via the use of encryption
technologies and other means of
scrambling the contents of the
information transferred over the network.
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Wireless LANs
Wireless LANs Vs Wired LANs: The
services
offered
through
wireless LAN are a replication of those

provided through a wired LAN.
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Wireless LANs
Advantages: Wireless LANs can be used within the
building environment.
The benefits include flexibility,
portability, modest cost movable
installation, and multiple system
interconnectivity.
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Wireless LANs
Advantages: The wireless world provides the
technological linkages to the
established data and information
services available in the wired world.
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Wireless LANs
Advantages: Wire LANs are meant to be limiteddistance support products.
They can not support open and
unlimited roaming of users.
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Wireless LANs
Advantages: Wireless LANs can support flexible
connectivity
by
providing
an
automatic recognition of roaming
users and the ability to hop across
various
networks
to
obtain
information and services.
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Wireless LANs
Advantages: It has also ability to initiate a fast
setup or a quick move of the
technology and continue to offer
connectivity services.
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Wireless LANs
Advantages: The longer distance wireless LANs may
be very appropriate for telecommuting
and other remote user operations.
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Wireless LANs
Disadvantages:This include: contention.
Errors.
Incomplete returns.
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Wireless LANs
Disadvantages: Instability.
Lack of reliability.
Long waits.
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Wireless LANs
Disadvantages: Slow response.
Unpredictable timings.
Variable space coverage.
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Wireless LANs
Disadvantages: The disadvantage of wireless LANs are
found mostly in their environmental
limits of connectivity and in their
reliability of operation in all areas and
at all times.
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Wireless LANs
Disadvantages: The biggest fault is seen in the
situations when they frustrate the end
user.
Being a new technology, have still not
overcome their teething problems.
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Wireless LANs
Disadvantages: Other key fault is in the limited
speed and transfer rates of the
wireless systems
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Wireless LANs
Disadvantages: The low speed individual wireless
links can be partially overcome by the
use of dedicated channels and
frequencies, similar to hub switching
in wired LANs.
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Wireless LANs
Distance and Speeds Limitations.
Local area networks are limited in their
coverage area.
The use of air transmission signals for the
passage of information in the wireless
LANs is dependent on their strength.
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Wireless LANs
Distance and Speeds Limitations: The distance for the open space
varieties of wireless LANs are the
reverse of those for the localized
forms.
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Wireless LANs
Distance and Speeds Limitations: Typical distance limits for localized
wireless networks are in the order of
80 to 300 feet between components.
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Wireless LANs
Distance and Speeds Limitations: The nominal speed for wireless LANs
can be in the range of 500,000 to
3,000,000 bits per second.The new
802.11 standard calls for a speed of
2,000,000 BPS.
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Wireless LANs
Costs and Benefits: The air medium of wireless systems is
less costly than the copper or fiber
medium
of
the
alternative
technologies.
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Wireless LANs
Costs and Benefits: However, the transmitter and receiver
products are still more expensive than
the same functional units in the wired
world.
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Wireless LANs
Applications: Health Care:- The provision of health
care services is centered around the
interface of the patient and the health
care provider.
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Wireless LANs
Applications: Health Care:-Most of focus of wireless
services in health care is aimed at the
care provider.Health care services are
known for their heavy loads of
paperwork.
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Wireless LANs
Applications: Educational
System:-
The
educational systems are logical
candidates for the use of a wireless
LAN.
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Wireless LANs
Use Wireless LAN Applications: Educational System:-The use of
wireless LAN would provide the
teachers
access
to
student
information, grade books, teaching
resources, lesson plans.
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Wireless LANs
Applications: Temporary Setup:- Temporary work
situations are excellent candidates for
the use of wireless LANs.The systems
can be setup quickly in most compact
locations.
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Wireless LANs
Applications:Temporary Setup include: The Conventions.
The Emergency Situations.
The Entertainment Programs.
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Wireless LANs
Applications:Temporary Setup include: The Fund raising campaigns.
The Management Events.
The Political campaigns.
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Wireless LANs
Applications:Temporary Setup include: The seasonal events.
The sales campaigns.
The security operations.
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Wireless LANs
Applications:Temporary Setup include: The Sporting events.
The Special events.
The Special sales.
The Training camps.
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Wireless LANs
Applications:-
Temporary
Setup: The temporary
setup and the necessary equipment

would probably be stored as a library
unit, so it could be quickly acquired
and implemented.
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Wireless LANs
Applications:General Services:- These services
include: The Bulletin board messages.
The Facilities control.
The Logistics management.
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Wireless LANs
Applications:General Services: The management reporting.
The Media interfacing.
The Messages and E-mail.
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Wireless LANs
Applications:General Services: The Operational control.
The Person location.
The Provisioning for food and refreshment.
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Wireless LANs
Applications:General Services: The Scheduling of backup support.
The Task management.
The Time tracking and triggering.
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Wireless LANs
Future Evolution:- The evolution for
the future will include: Higher Speeds.
Improved Security.
Multiple frequency hopping.
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Wireless LANs
Future Evolution: New vendors.
Seamless end-to-end protocols.
Better error control.
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Wireless LANs
Future Evolution: Longer Distances.
Home Systems.
New Devices.
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WIRELISS LAN NETWORK

MANAGEMENT
Wireless LANs will have to be
integrated
into
the
overall
communications
network
management scheme used by the
organization.
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MANAGEMENT
While the overall management will
only be a sub part of the total
communications operations , there
will be several unique parts in the
management of the wireless LANworld
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MANAGEMENT
Wireless LAN management will focus
on the issues of local users and
technology
integration
points
between wireless and wired service
worlds.
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MANAGEMENT
SERVISE TRACKING :-
The wireless LAN is a user-oriented
service layer.It interfaces with users

and takes delivers communications
results for the user.
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MANAGEMENT
SERVISE TRACKING :-
Service tracking requires the network

management system to be able to
identify, log,and trace the flows of
information
from
source
to
destination.
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MANAGEMENT
DATA IDENTIFICATION:-
Managing a wireless LAN requires to

identify what traffic is being handled and
establish its source and destination.
After that the validation that the data
contents of the message are correct and a
error free has to tested.
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MANAGEMENT
DATA IDENTIFICATION:-
The data tracking in a wireless environment

can be diffulicat as the data can be hopping
across various frequencies in its travel
between the wireless units stopping at
different contrail and concretion points as it
makers its way on an end-to end- journey.
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MANAGEMENT
COUPLER IDENTIFICATION:-
Various units that make up the wireless

LAN world carry some from of identifying
codes.
The Ethernet units conform to the 48-bit
fixed address definition of the standard.
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MANAGEMENT
COUPLER IDENTIFICATION:-
All token ring coulers carry assigned

names.
In addition, many of the components of the
wireless LAN world,such as servers,
bridges,routers and gateways, carry
capabilities to report their states.
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MANAGEMENT
PROBES:-
Probes are used to detect and report

conditions set selected points within a
network .
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MANAGEMENT
PROBES:-
By placing them at strategic points within a

network, the monitoring system can
interact with probes request status and
error information to be collected and
transferred to monitoring system.
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MANAGEMENT
MONITORS:-
Monitors are used to present and evaluate

in real time the status off a
communications network.
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MANAGEMENT
MONITORS:-
The monitors must be used in wireless

network to monitor the following: Traffic management
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MANAGEMENT
MONITORS:-
Timing services
Load contrail
ERROR TRAPPING
Fault alarms
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MANAGEMENT
Throughout tracking
Alternating routing
Status checking
Backup support
UPS interconnect
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METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

MAN is larger than LAN.
It is called MAN because it covers the
area of the city.
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A metropolitan area network,or MAN(plural:
MANs not MEN)is basically,a bigger version
of LAN and normally uses similar
technology.
It might cover a group of nearby corporate
offices or a city and might be either private
or public.
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A MAN can support both data and voice and
might even be related to the local-cable
television network.
A MAN just has two cables and does not
contain switching elements,which shunt
packets over one of several potential
output lines.
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Not having to switch simplifies the design.
The main reason for even distinguishing
MANs as a special category is that a
standard has been adopted for them, and
this standard is now being implemented.
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It is called DQDB(Distributed Queue Dual
Bus) or people who prefer numbers to
letters, 802.6(the number of the IEEE
standard that defines it).
DQDB consists of two unidirectional
buses(cable) to which all the computers
are connected as shown in figure.
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Each bus has a head-end,a device that
initiates transmission activity.
Traffic that is destined for a computer to
the right of the sender uses the upper bus.
Traffic to the left uses the lower one.
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Bus A
Computers
Direction of flow on Bus A
Head-End
Bus B
Direction of flow of Bus B

Architecture of the DQDB Metropolitan Area Network
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A key aspect of MAN is that there is a
broadcast medium(for 802.6,two
cables) to which all the computers are
attached.
This greatly simplifies the design compare
to other kinds of networks.
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WIDE AREA NETWORK

A Wide-area network is two or more
geographical dispersed computers linked
by communication facilities.
Most significant aspects of a WAN as
compare to LAN is the involvement of a
public telecommunications authority.
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WIDE AREA NETWORK

Categories:There are two specific WAN categories: Enterprise.
Global .
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WIDE AREA NETWORK
Categories: Enterprise:- An enterprise network

connects all
organization.
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LANs
of
single
158
WIDE AREA NETWORK

Categories: Global:-
Global is one that spans the
earth. While global networks may not cover

the entire globe,they cross multiple
national boundaries.
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Types of Networking
Wide Area Networks (WAN): WAN can be connected with or without
wires.
Generally by satellite systems
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Types of Networking
Wide Area Network:Categories of WAN: Enterprise
Global
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Wide Area Network

Categories of WAN: Enterprise:- It connects all the LANs of
single organization .
Global :- It is one that spans the earth.
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Network Services
Types of Services: Server:- Servers are only allowed to provide
services .
Clients:- clients are only allowed to request

services from others.
Peers:- Peers may do both concurrently.
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Network Services
Computer Networks are classified
as: Peer-to-peer
Server-Centric
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Peer-to-peer
It allow any entity to both request and
provide network services.
It is design so that peer perform the same
function for each other.
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Server-Centric
It involves strictly define roles.
It places restrictions upon which
entity may make requests or service
them.
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2nd CHAPTER
STANDARDS
OSI Reference MODEL
OSI PHYSICAL LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI DATA LINK LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI NETWORK LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI TRANSPORT LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI SESSION LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI PRESENTATION LAYER CONCEPTS
OSI APPLICATION LAYER CONCEPTS
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Open System
Interconnection Model
OSI: OSI stands for
Interconnection.
Open
System
OSI
was
introduced
By
the
International Standards Organization
in 1982.
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Open System
OSI: IN 1978,the ISO Technical Committee 97
started subcommittee number 16 to
develop an architecture and reference
model.
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Open System
OSI: Model still is highly useful in the
definition of how a communication
architecture is defined.
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Open System
OSI: In 1978 the ISO purposed a broad
model
for
mainframe
WAN
communication,which was titled The
Reference Model of OSI.
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Open System
OSI:-
OSI refers to the exchange of

information
among
terminal
devices,computers,people,networks
and processes.
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Open System
OSI: The OSI Reference Model is not itself a
standard nor it is a literal description
of computer communication.
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173
Open System
OSI:-
The Reference Model is intended to

provide a common basis for coordinating
the development of standards aimed at
system interconnection.
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Open System
OSI Layers: The ISO/OSI model uses layers to
organize a network into well-defined,
functional modules.
Model description of these layers is
used to build real network.
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Open System
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data-Link Layer
Physical Layer
Network Layers in the ISO/OSI model

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Open System
OSI Layers:-
Each module provides specific

functionality to its adjacent layers.
Each layer only cares about its
interface to the next layer in the
network.
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Open System
Principles used to develop the

layers:-
Create a new network whenever the

network software needs a different
level of abstraction.
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Open System
Principles :-
Each layer should perform a welldefine function.

Choose Layer boundaries to minimize
the information flow across the
interfaces.
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Open System
Principles :-
Choose each layers function with an

eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
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Open System
Principles :-
The number of layers should be large

enough so that the network designers
do not need to place dissimilar
functions in the same layer.
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OPEN SYSTEM INTERFACE

Open System Interface has seven
layer: Layer 7
Application layer
layer 6
Presentation layer
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Open System Interface has seven
layer: layer 5
Session layer
layer 4
Transport layer
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Open System Interface has seven layer: layer 3
Network layer
Layer 2
Data Link
Layer 1
Physical
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OPEN SYESTEM INTERFACE

OSI REFERENCE MODEL: This Model is based on a proposal
developed by the International
Standard Organization (ISO).
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OPEN SYESTEM INTERFACE

This Model is called ISO/OSI Reference
Model because it deals with
connecting open system that is
system is open for communication
with other system.
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OPEN SYESTEM INTERFACE LAYERS

Various Layer under OSI/ISO reference
Model:The Physical Layer : The physical layer is concerned with raw bits over a
communication channel.
The design issue have to do with making sure that one
side send a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as 1 bit,
not as 0 bit.
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Open System
Physical layer: The physical layer transmits data
through the networks communication
channels.
It includes hardware needed to
accomplish this function.
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Open System
Physical layer: Data transmission methods, including
control signals and timing, are also
part of the physical layer.
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Open System
Physical layer: It includes network technologies that
define
parameters
for
data
transmission.
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Open System
Physical layer:-
Physical layer determines the

mechanical and electrical properties
of the network communication
channel.
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Data Link Layer

This layer specifies cable access
methods like collision detection &
token passing.
This layer also specifies the structure
of frames.
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Open System
Data-Link Layer:-
The data-link layer transfer raw data

between the physical layer and the
network layer.
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Open System Interconnection

Model
Data-Link Layer:-
The data-link layers primary function

is to prevent data corruption within
the physical layer.
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Open System
Data-Link Layer:-
The data-link layer helps localize the

definition of information flowing
between the physical and network
layer.
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195
Open System
Data-Link Layer:-
Data-link layer minimize the flow of

information across the boundaries
between the physical and network
layers.
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Open System
Data-Link Layer:-
The data-link layer formats or

transforms raw binary data into
something meaningful to the network
layer normally frames of data.
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Network Layer
The main function of this layer is: Routing
Switching
Controlling the flow of information.
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Open System
Network Layer:-
The network layer determines the

route that data follows to reach its
destination on the network.
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Open System
Network Layer:-
The network layer handles data

corruption within the communication
channel.
The network layer is the primary delivery
system within a network.
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Open System
Network Layer:-
In the internet the network layer

delivers units of data as individual
packets.
Each packet contains a destination
and source address.
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Open System
Network Layer:-
According to the OSI reference model,

the network layer is also responsible
for ensuring proper sequencing.
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Open System
Network Layer:-
To route data, networks commonly use

routing tables.A routing table is like a
look-up database.
Routing tables can be static or
dynamic.
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Transport Layer
This layer ensure error-free source to
destination connection.
It also take care of providing
information in smaller unit size.
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Open System
Transport Layer:-
The transport layers delivers data

within a host computer.
Within the host computer, the
transport layer delivers the data to the
correct application.
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Open System
Transport Layer: The transport layer must be able to
interact with and manage the data for
multiple programs at the same time.
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Open System
Transport Layer:-
Transport layer controls the data flow

between peer processes .
Transport layers include flow control
requests in the exchanged messages.
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Session Layer
This layer connect and terminates
data transfer sessions between
host processes.
Net-BIOS operates at this layer.
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Open System
Session layer:-
The
session
layer
negotiates
connections between processes or
applications on different host
computers.
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Open System
Session layer:-
The session layer handles details such

as account names, passwords, and user
authorities.
The session layer must handle requests
for a change to a negotiated option.
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Open System
Session layer:-
The session layer transforms data

packaged from network transmissions
into application data.
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Open System
Session layer:-
The session layer is the users interface

to a network.
The session layer establishes and
manages connections between users
and network applications.
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Presentation Layer
The main function of this layer is to
convert data format of the sending
station to the format acceptable to the
receiving station.
It also provides code conversions and
data compression facility.
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Open System
Presentation Layer:-
The presentation layer handles details

related to the networks interface to
printers, video displays and file
formats.
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Open System
The presentation layer defines how

the network presents itself to your
hardware and software
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Open System
The presentation layer consolidates

common functions that networks must
repeatedly uses during network
communications.
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Application Layer
This layer deals with end user functions
like file transfer, print and electronic mail.
This layer contains a variety of protocols
that are commonly needed.
For example there are hundred of
incompatible terminals type in the world.
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Open System
Application Layer: The application layer contains details
about network-wide applications.
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Open System
Application Layer:-
Application that you develop for use across

the internet will be part of the application
layer.
All programs for network computer users
are part of the networks application layer.
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3rd CHAPTER
CABLE MEDIA
PUBLIC & PRIVATE NETWORK SERVICES
CONNECTING HARDWARE
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Transmission Media
It is the pathway networked entities
used contact each other .
Computer
transmission media
include
cable
and
wireless
technologies.
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COMPONENT OF NETWORK
NIC (NETWORK INTERFACING CARD)
CABELS
CONNECTORS
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COMPONENT OF NETWORK
WORKSTATIONS
FILE SERVER
NOS (NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM)
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NETWORK INTERFACE CARD

NIC is generally fix over one of the
expansion slot of the mother board
in both workstations and file
server.
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NETWORK INTERFACE CARD

NIC card is of 16 bit and 32 bit.
Connection with connectors is of BNC
and RJ45 type.
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NIC (NETWORK INTERFACE CARD)

stored routines to
control processor
buffer
(RAM)
Processor
Boot ROM Socket
DIP Switches
Bus Interface ICs
RJ-45
Connector
Transceiver
connector
BNC
Connector
Expansion Bus Connector
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CABLES
Light
Signal
Reflective
Surface
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CABLING
TYPES OF CABLING: Fibre optic cables
Copper cables
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228
FIBRE OPTIC CABLES

Fiber optic cables are used for
transmission of data at high
speed.
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FIBRE OPTIC CABLES

Features of Fibre Optic cables: No EMI & RFI interference
High speed
Small size of cables
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230
FIBRE OPTIC CABLES

Features of Fibre Optic cables: Low cable weight
high bandwidth
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231
COPPER CABLES
Types of copper cable: Twisted Pair
Co-axial
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Twisted Pair
Types of Twisted Pair: Shielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair
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233
Shielded Twisted Pair

Features are: Speed is very fast
High cost
More thick size
Limited length
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234
Unshielded Twisted Pair

Features are: Good speed
Low cost
Small size
Limited length
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235
Co-axial Cable
Types of Co-axial: Thin Co-axial Cable
Thick Co-axial Cable
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236
Thin Co-axial Cable

Features are: Fast speed
Medium size
Medium cost
Medium length
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237
Thick Co-axial Cable

Features are:-
Fast speed
Medium size
Medium cost
Medium length
More strength
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238
COPPER CABLES
PROBLEMS IN COPPER CABLE: EMI Disturbances
RFI Disturbances
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239
TOOLS USED FOR CABLE FAULT

FINDING
TONE GENERATOR DETECTOR: TDR - TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER
VOM - VOLT OHM METER
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240

FINDING
Continuity of cable.
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241

FINDING
Testing of brakes and kinks in the
cable.
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242

FINDING
Testing of continuity.
06/15/15
243

FINDING
Cable System Trouble
Shooting .
06/15/15
244

FINDING
Break the problem into smaller parts
look for effective or improperly

installed connectors, trees etc.
Look for missing terminators
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245

FINDING
Look for damaged cable.
Look for use intervention.
Look for sources of interference.
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246
TOOLS USED FOR CABLE

FAULT FINDING
If you are using a linear cabling
system such as thin Ethernet, try
dis-connecting section of network.
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FINDING
Loose,improperly installed or
damaged connectors are a major
case of cabling problems.
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248

FINDING
Terminators are often not properly
installed when equipment is moved or
added.
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TOOLS FOR CABLE FAULT

FINDING
If cable is running across the floor, it

can easily get damaged. In addition ,
construction or remodeling could also
be source of problems.
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FINDING
Users have been known to add sections of

cable (such as adding drop cables between
their tee fitting and network card) , remove
PCs from the network with tee fitting
attached etc.User intervention , therefor ,is
often a common cause of incorrect cabling
on a network.
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FINDING
For example, cable running over
fluorescent lights or down elevator
shafts can cause problems.
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252
COAXIAL CABLES
Coaxial cable system consist of tube
carrying number of coaxial cables
together with repeaters and other
ancillary equipment .
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253
COAXIAL CABLES
The typical number of channels
per cables varies from 600 in a
3MHz system to 3600 in an 18MHz
system.
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254
COAXIAL CABLES
Repeaters that is intermediate
amplifiers must be placed at suitable
intervals along the route.The
distance varies, being, inversely
proportional to the bandwidth of the
system .
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255
COAXIAL CABLES
Multiplexing and demultiplexing bays
are the major
portion of the
equipment .
D.C. Power feed equipment is also
located at the terminals .
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256
COAXIAL CABLES
A distinction should be made
between a super group (or even a
supermaster group) a pilot and a
system pilot .
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257
FIBRE-OPTIC COMMUNICATION
Optical Fibre are used for light
and infrared transmission , in a
manner identical to waveguides
at microwave frequencies.
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258
Optical
fibers
are
increasingly
replacing wire transmission lines in

communication systems and offer
following advantages.
06/15/15
259
Light is effectively the same as radio
frequency radiation but at a very much
higher frequency , theoretically, the
information carrying capacity of a
Fibre as much greater than microwave
radio system .
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260
The material used in Fibre is silica glass ,
or silicon dioxide , which is one the most
abundant materials on earth, so that
eventually the cost of such lines is much
lower than wire lines or microwave
system .
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Since Fibre are not electrically conductive,
they can be used in areas where electrical
isolation and interference are severe
problems. Optical Fibre
systems are
virtually
immune to cross-talk and
electromagnetic interference.
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LASER and LED modulation methods

lends ideally to digital modulation and
the modern trend in broadband
communications is decidedly towards
digital transmission.
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263
The worlds fiber-optics systems so for
use single frequency operation of each
fiber .But
overcome
thus drawback is being

by
use
of
wavelength
multiplexing .
06/15/15
264
NUMBER OF MODES IN
FIBER
As already stated light propagates in a

manner similar to microwaves when
confined to waveguide, but a much
higher frequency .
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265
NUMBER OF MODES IN
FIBER
Most fiber optic communication
presently use two bands between 0.8
to 0.9 micrometer and between 1.2 and
1.4 micrometer where fibers have low
losses.
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LOSSES IN FIBRES
RAYLEIGH LOSSES:The glass in optical
fibers is an amorphous(non-crystalline)
solid which is formed by allowing the glass
to cool from is still plastic, the glass is
drawn out under tension into its long fiber
form .
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LOSSES IN FIBRES
It is found that the losses induced
because of its scattering effect vary
inversely with the fourth power of the
wavelength, so that their effects are
reduced to less than about 0.3 db/km
at a wavelength of 1.3 km.
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LOSSES IN FIBRES
ABSORPTION LOSSES:-
Ultraviolet absorption,
infrared absorption and ion resonance
absorption contributes to absorption
losses.
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269
LOSSES IN FIBRES
ULTRAVIOLET ABSORPTION:
It takes place because of pure fused

silica, valence electrons can be ionized
into conduction electrons by light with a
center wavelength of about 0.14
micrometer, corresponding to an energy
level of about 8.9 eV.
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LOSSES IN FIBRES
INFRARED ABSORPTION :
It takes place photons of light energy are

absorbed by the atoms within the glass
molecules and converted to the random
mechanical vibrations typical of heating.
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LOSSES IN FIBRES
ION RESONANCE ABSORPTIONS:--
Minute qualities of
water molecules, trapped in the glass
contribute OH-ions to the materials, which
exhibit absorption and is called ion
resonance absorption.
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LOSSES IN FIBRES
BENDING LOSSES:
There two types of bending losses

caused due to microbending and
constant reduce bending.
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273
LOSSES IN FIBRES
BENDING LOSSES: Microbending can also be introduced if the
fibers are subsequently wound in to a
multifiber cable or wound on spools for
transportation.
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FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
At low information rates, the length of

a fiber optic transmission line is
limited almost entirely by the losses
introduced along its length.
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FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM
If the transmission bit rate is increased,

then at some high bit rate the length of
line will become limited by the amount of
pulse dispersion which takes place along
the line
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SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
A communication satellite is basically a
microwave link repeater. It receives the
energy beamed up at it by an earth station
and amplifier and return to earth at a
frequency of about 2 GHz away.
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SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
This prevent interference between the
uplink and the down link communication
satellite appears to hover over given
spots above the equator.
This does not make them stationary, but
rather geostationary.
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THE SATELITE SYSTEM
The basic component of satellite

communication system are an earth
station and satellite with necessary
equipment's on board as shown.
06/15/15
279
THE SATELITE SYSTEM

Satellite
DOWN LINK
UP LINK
Earth
EARTH STATION
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EARTH STATION
280
THE SATELITE SYSTEM
Earth station does both the jobs of

transmitting and receiving the
signal situated at different places.
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THE SATELITE SYSTEM

Earth station have to transmit high
power R.F.signals in the direction of
the satellite at the uplink frequency
and receive very feeble R.F. signal from
the satellite of the down link
frequency.
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06/15/15
283
CONNECTORS
BNC connector assembly
06/15/15
284
Connectors
RJ45 :- This connector is of 8 pin.
Generally UTP wire is used with these
connectors.
06/15/15
285
Connectors
BNC : -BAYONET NEILL CONCELANN: This connector is very similar to connector
of CRO and wire use is coaxial.
06/15/15
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06/15/15
287
Net ware O.S

NOS is one of the most important component of
LAN.
As on date ,variety of NOS exist in the market

with various features,some of them are : Server based Nos.
Novell NetWare
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288
Net ware O.S

SERVER BASED NOS: Banyan vines
LAN manager
Apple talk
Tops
LAN astic
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289
PEER-TO-PEER NOS
Out of all of these NOS Novell NetWare have
market share of about 70%of the PC LAN NOS
market.
In order to provide better and fast
response, NetWare uses various
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290
PEER-TO-PEER NOS
Techniques to enhance file server disk
access. These techniques are: file caching
directory hashing
elevator seeking
fast indexing
hot fixing
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FILE CACHING
NetWare retains the contents of file read
from disk into server memory(ram)for
future use until the same memory areas
are used by newly read data.this reduced
disk access and hence increases speed.
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DIRECTORY HASHING
NetWare makes index table(hash table)of
directory enters in file server RAM .
This makes file searching fast as compared
to normal sequential search method.
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293
DIRECTORY CACHING
All the network directories are kept into the
RAM of file server and hence eliminate
need of disk access for directory details
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Elevator Seeking
This method is exactly same as elevator in
building, I.e it serves the Passangers,
depending upon to request of floor on they
which they want to go irrespective of their
request sequence. In this method, when
multiple request to read from a file
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Elevator Seeking
Server disk are received by NetWare, the
NetWare
sorts
the
request
and
arrange/Serve them based on the current
position of read/write head.
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Fat indexing
In case of large files NetWare
automatically build and indexing
memory about the location of the file
on the disk.
This speeds up random read and
writes.
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Hot fixing
In this process, if a bad block is detected
on a file server disk during a write
operation then a data is moved to another
area on the disk and that block is marked
as bad by storing information about the
same on the disks bad- block table.
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Workstations
Workstation are attached with Server
through wires and card(NIC) and by
interfacing NOS.
It is possible to make diskless
workstations by the help of Remote
booting.
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CONNECTING HARDWARE
REQUIRED COMPONENTS: Server
Client
Media
NOS
06/15/15
300
CONNECTING HARDWARE
SERVER: In server we have to mount the LAN card on
the mother board.
Also install the drivers of LAN card.
It may be hard diskless or with hard disk.
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301
NETWORK SERVERS
Server is one of the most powerful part of
client network. Main job of a server is to
provide particular service like filing ,
printing, communication etc. to various
members of network family.
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NETWORK SERVERS
The heart of the server based LAN system is
the server Operating System (also called as
NOS)
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303
NETWORK SERVERS
Based on the type of service provided
by server to its clients, servers are
known as : File Server
Print Server
Fax Server
Communication Server
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304
FILE SERVER
This server acts as source for sharing files
among the clients.
The main function of file server is to provide
controlled access to files depending upon the
access rights the user has. All this is controlled
by file server software, basically part of NOS.
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FILE SERVER
Normally before designating the job of file
server to a Computer, it must be taken into
consideration that the Computer must have a
high speed, high capacity Hard Disk for storage
of files and a powerful processor to operate at
high speed so that speed of server should not
become a bottleneck in efficient working of
network system.
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FILE SERVER
Under average conditions, file server itself
act as Print Server,Fax Server and
Communication Server in a network but
when the load of such activities increases,
only we go for separate server for these
services.
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File server
Kinds of server: NOVELL
WINDOWS NT
UNIX
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SINGLE SERVER
Printers
High Speed
File server
Modem
High capacity
HDD
Node-1
NOS
Node-2
Node -3
Node- 4
Single Server(Client/ Server Network)

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DISTRIBUTED SERVERS
High speed &
high capacity
HDD
Printer
Modem
File Server
Printer Server
Communication
Server
NOS
Node-1
Node-2
Node-3
Node-4
Distributed
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310
PRINT SERVER
Normally network printing activity is
handled by File Server itself but under
special situation it is advised to have
separate server for handling the print jobs.
The machine use to handle this activity is
called as Print Server.
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PRINT SERVER
Advantage: The speed of File Server remains
uneffected due to large printing load and
the consequences of a lock-up or shutdown on a Print Server a usually less
severe than the consequences of lockingup a File Server.
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312
FAX SERVER
Fax Server gives multiple LAN workstation the
ability to send and receive Faxes through a
single network connection.
The Fax Server can be a workstation with an
installed Fax board and special software or a
specialized device designed for Fax Service.
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COMMUNICATION SERVER
Communication Server provides connections
between client computer on a LAN and off-LAN
services, or provides access to LAN resources
from off LAN systems.
Although communication services can be

integrated into the file server operating system.
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Communication server include the
following : Host gateways allow multiple LAN clients to access a
time sharing computer via a single connection to the
LAN .
Remote access servers allow remote PCs or
terminals to access LAN resources via dial-up phone
lines or leased lines .
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315
A Synchronous Communication server
allows multiple LAN users to share a

pool of dial-out modems or a
synchronous connection to a host
computer.
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316
Uses of Computer
Network
Generally
there are two aspects by
which the uses of computer networks

are discussed. These are:
Networks for Companies

Networks for People
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317

Many organizations have a
substantial number of computers
in operation, often located far
apart.
06/15/15
318

For example, a company with many
factories may have a computer at each
location to keep track of inventories,
monitor productivity, and do the local
payroll.
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319

Initially each of these computers have
worked in isolation from others , but at
same point, management may have
decided to connect them to be able to
extract & correlate the information at
various locations of entire company.
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320

Uses of Networking : Resource sharing : Goal is to make
all programs, equipment and data
available to anyone on the network
without regard to the physical location
of the network resources.
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321

High Reliability :-By having alternative
sources of supply.
For example all files could be replicated on
two or more machines & so if one of them
is unavailable ( due to hardware failure ),
the other copies could be used.
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322

Saving Money :-
Instead of using costly
Mainframe computers the concept is to use

personal computer, one per person, with data kept
on one or more shared file server machines.
In this model users are called the clients & the
whole arrangement is called the client- server

model.
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323

Communication medium :- Provide a
powerful communication medium among
widely separated employees.
Different department can communicate
and get information about current results.
06/15/15
324
Networks for People
Interactive entertainment :-
We can access online information about

various type of matches etc.
Video on demand,audience participating in
quiz shows ,and many more.
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325
Networks for People

Facility to a common Man: Many people pay their bills, manage their
bank accounts.
Handle their bank accounts electronically.
06/15/15
326
Networks for People

Internet facility: world wide web helps us to getting the
information about
art,business,govt.,science,sports.
Person-to-person communication using email.
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327
Networks for People

Internet facility: Home shopping
Newspaper are going on-line
Virtual meeting are possible called video
conference among far- flung people
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328
NETWORK HARDWARE
Types of transmission
technology: BROADCAST NETWORKS.
POINT-TO-POINT NETWORKS.
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329
NETWORK HARDWARE
BROADCAST NETWORKS: Broadcast Networks have a single communication
channel that is shared by all the machines on the
network.
PACKETS:- Short messages,called packets in

certain contexts,sent by any machine are received
by all the others.
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330
NETWORK HARDWARE
PACKETS: An address field within the packet
specifies for whom it is intended.Upon
receiving a packet , a machine checks the
address field.If the packet is intended for
some other machine,it is just ignored.
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NETWORK HARDWARE
PACKETS: It allow the possibility of addressing a
packet to all destinations by using a
special code in the address field.
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332
NETWORK HARDWARE
PACKETS: When a packet with this code is
transmitted, it is received and
processed by every machine on the
network.This mode of operation is
called broadcasting.
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333
NETWORK HARDWARE
PACKETS: Some broadcast system also support
transmission to a subset of machine,
something known as multicasting.
06/15/15
334
NETWORK HARDWARE
POINT-TO-POINT NETWORK: Point-to-point network consist of many
connections between individual pairs of
machines .
06/15/15
335
NETWORK HARDWARE
POINT-TO-POINT NETWORK:
To go from the source to the
destination, a packet on this type of
network may have to first visit one or
more intermediate machines.
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336
NETWORK HARDWARE
POINT-TO-POINT NETWORK: Multiple routes, of differently lengths
are possible, so routing algorithms
play an important role in point-to-point
networks.
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337
Components of NetWare
NetWare have following S/W
modules for providing various
services: File server Modules
Print server Module
06/15/15
338
NetWare have following S/W
modules for providing various
services: LAN driver
Protocol driver
Re-direction software
06/15/15
339
File server module provides controlled
Access to network resources.
Print server module provides access to
network printers.
LAN drivers facilitate
among network devices
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communication
340
Component of NetWare
Protocol driver provides .
Communication facility to network devices.
Re-direction software provides logical
connection between various network
devices like workstations and file servers.
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341
Salient features of NetWare

Now a days NetWare version
available are: Ver 3.xx ad 4.xx
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342
Hardware requirements
For NetWare: System : - 80386 & above with 4 mb ram for
ver. 3.xx and 8mb ram for ver. 4.xx.
Besides this minimum hard disk free space
of 80 mb.
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343
Features
Supports up to 250 concurrent users.
1,00,000 concurrently open files.
4 GB maximum file size.
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344
Features
32 tera bytes hard disk space .
Up to 1024 hard disks per file server.
4 G Bytes file Server RAM.
64 LAN drivers.
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345
FEATURES
Password encryption at work station level .
Multiple file names, allowing files to be
named appropriately for each environment.
Easy reconfiguration without downing the
server.
Volumes can span multiple drives.
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346
FEATURES OF NETWARE 4.xx

NetWare 4.x x have various features external/hidden for better management
&support.
By external, we mean visible to the users
and hidden means feature added in
internal code of NetWare for better
performance.
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347
Features of NetWare 4.xx

NetWare 4.xx offers all the capabilities
found in previous version i.e. Version 3.xx
alongwith these new features.some of the
significant features of NetWare 4.xx are:
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348
Enhanced NetWare Directory

Services (NDS) so as to provide
Faster synchronization.
Greater scalability.
Self repairing capabilities.
Better interworking support.
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349
On Disk file compression

This feature allows to perform on-thefly file compression at the file system
level and hence helps to save 40-70%
disk pace.
06/15/15
350
On Disk File compression

After Compression is enabled,files flagged
asimmediate compressare compressed
immediately,other files are automatically
compressed when they havent been
accessed for a specific period of time.
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351
On Disk file compression

Compressed files are decompressed when
accessed again by user.
Support for Multiple languages version 4.01
also Supports French, Italian,German,&
Spanish besides English and hence helps
multi-national companies to use NetWare
in their offices worldwide and thus
facilitates uniformly.
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352
NETWORKING INSTALLATION
Steps involved in installation: Make partition in the HDDs for NetWare and
create volumes.
Copy NetWare files.
06/15/15
353
Steps involved in installation: Load LAN drivers.
Install and configure NOS
06/15/15
354
Steps involved in installation: Get cabling done & tested for continuity.
Install NICs and other hardware devices.
06/15/15
355
Steps involved in installation: Partition and Format HDD(DOS).
Load DOS and disk drivers.
06/15/15
356
Steps involved in installation: Define printer options .
Add security features .
06/15/15
357
Steps involved in installation: Install
and
workstations.
configure
Network
Setup logic scripts, users and groups.
06/15/15
358
Networks Connecting Devices

Inter networks commonly use special
devices called Repeaters,Bridges,Routers
and gateways to connect independent
networks.
LAN occasionally use these devices to
extend connections within a LAN.
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359

Connecting Devices are: Repeater
Bridge
router
Brouters
06/15/15
360

Connecting Devices are: Hub
CSU/DSU
Gateway
Transmission Media Adapter
06/15/15
361

Connecting Devices are: Transmission Media Connectors.
Networking Interface Boards.
Transceivers.
06/15/15
362

Repeaters: A repeater copies or repeats signals that it
receives.
A repeater also amplifies all received
signals before re-transmission.
A repeater strengthens an incoming signal
before sending the signal on its way.
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363

Repeaters: Ethernet also use repeaters to extend the
length of the bus cable within a LAN.
You can use a repeater as a part of an
internetwork connection,you can also use
repeaters within a single, standalonenetwork such as a LAN.
06/15/15
364

Bridge: A bridge interconnects two networks that
use same technology.
It is more sophisticated than a repeater.
Bridges also boost performance,reliability
and security.
06/15/15
365

Bridge: Network administrators also use a bridge to
create two or more networks.
Any network user can utilize a special
network device,called a network analyzer.
A bridge will not prevent unauthorized
monitoring.
06/15/15
366

Router: A router transfers or routes data between
networks.
Router transfer data between different
technologies.
Routers are essential part of Internet.
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367

Router: Router has an address on the network;a
bridge does not.
A computer can send a packet destined for
another network to router ,the router will
transfer that packet to the network.
06/15/15
368

Router: A computer can send a packet destined for
another network to router ,the router will
transfer that packet to the network.
06/15/15
369

Brouter: Brouters are essential routers that can
also bridge.
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370

Brouter: A brouter will first check to see if it
supports the protocol being used by the
packet.If not,rather than simply dropping
the packet,it is bridged using physical
address information.
06/15/15
371

Hub: It is a centralized distribution point for all
traffic on single leg of the actual network.
06/15/15
372

Hub: Data packets from a NIC arrive at hub which
receives and rebroadcasts them to other
computers connected to it.
06/15/15
373

Hubs can be classified as: Stackable versus Non-stackable.
Active versus passive.
Intelligent versus Non-intelligent.
06/15/15
374

Hubs can be classified as: Stackable versus Non-stackable:Stackable
hubs can be stacked and connected so
they appear as a single hub.Non-stackable
hubs can not be interconnected.
06/15/15
375

Hubs can be classified as: Active versus passive:- The hub that
connects to the network backbone is the
active hub.Those which connect only to the
active hub are passive hubs.
06/15/15
376

Hubs can be classified as: Intelligent
versus
Non-intelligent:
Intelligent often cost much more than

dumb hubs.
06/15/15
377

CSU/DSU: CSU stands for Channel Service Unit.
DSU stands for Digital Service Unit.
CSU/DSUs are devices that prepare electric
pulse signals for transmission on WAN
transmission media.
06/15/15
378

CSU/DSU: These devices make sure that the signal
uses the correct signal strength and
format.
These units protect you and other public
network users,from electrical noise and
unsafe electric voltage.
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379

CSU/DSU: They prepare your data for transmission
according to the rules specified for the
network.
It is advantageous at the time to use public
transmission media networks.
06/15/15
380

Gateway: A gateway sometimes referred to as
application gateway.
Application gateways translate data that
specific network programs use.
06/15/15
381

Gateway: The most common type of application
gateway is one that e-mail applications
use.
06/15/15
382

Networking Interface Board: A network interface board includes all of
the physical and logical connections
between your computer or other
device,and the transmission medium.
06/15/15
383

Networking Interface Board: It is a logical board you install in a
computer to connect it to a cables
connector.
It may be network interface card or a
number of external devices.
06/15/15
384

Transceivers: Transceivers are devices that can transmit
as well as receive electric or
electromagnetic
signals
on
the
transmission media.
06/15/15
385

Transceivers: They come in a variety of different types,
but all of them emit electricity,light or
electromagnetic waves.
06/15/15
386

Transceivers: Using cable media,transceivers are often
coupled with connectors.
06/15/15
387

Transceivers: Using wireless media,transceivers are just
transmitting and receiving devices
because no mechanical connectors are
required.
06/15/15
388

Transmission Media Adapter: When a network interface board uses a
connector that is different from what is
already attached to the transmission
medium,a transmission media adapter is
used.
06/15/15
389

Transmission Media Adapter: The purpose of this adapter is to receive
signals form one type of connector and
convert them for use with another type.
06/15/15
390
4th CHAPTER
DATA TRANMISSION
DIGITAL AND ANALOG SIGNAL
BASEBAND &BROADBAND TRANSMISSION
MULTIPLEXING
06/15/15
391
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology or structure is the
layout of the connections
formed between computers.
06/15/15
392
Network Topologies
There are main 4 class of
network topologies: BUS Network
Ring Network
06/15/15
393
Network Topologies
There are main 4 class of
network topologies: Star network
Hybrid network
06/15/15
394
Network structures
Bus network: All the computers attached to one single
cable.
Fig :- Bus Network
06/15/15
395
Ring Networks
Data is send from workstation to

workstation in the form of loop
06/15/15
396
Star
Network
When all communication must go

through a central point.
A good example is the telephone switching

computer in the office. The following fig.
illustrates the structure of Star network.
06/15/15
397
Hybrid Network
Hybrid networks are: Part Star , Part ring & part bus.
06/15/15
398
Network Topology
Each computer or device in a network is
called a node.
The geometrical arrangement of computer
resources,remote device,communication
facilities is known as Network Topology.
06/15/15
399
Network Topology
Different Topologies: Bus Network.
Ring Network
Star Network.
06/15/15
400
Network Topology
Different Topologies: Tree Network.
Mesh Network.
06/15/15
401
Network Topology
Bus Network: In the bus Network ,each computer is
connected to a single communication cable.

Every computer can directly communicate with
every other computer or device in the Network.
06/15/15
402
Network Topology
Bus Network Advantages: Short cable length and simple wiring
layout.
Resilient architecture.
Easy to extend.
06/15/15
403
Bus Network
Hard Disk
Printer
06/15/15
404
Network Topology
Bus Network Disadvantages: Fault diagnosis is difficult.
Fault isolation is difficult.
Repeater configuration is difficult.
Nodes must be intelligent.
06/15/15
405
Network Topology
Bus Network Disadvantages: Fault diagnosis :- Fault detection is not
a simple matter.
Fault isolation:-
A defective node can

easily be isolated from the network by
removing its connection at the center.
06/15/15
406
Network Topology
Bus Network Disadvantages: Repeater configuration:Reconfiguration may
be necessary when a network has its
backbone extended using repeaters.
Nodes must be intelligent:Because each node
is directly connected to the central bus.
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407
Network Topology
Bus Network Evaluation Factors: Application.
Complexity.
Performance.
06/15/15
408
Network Topology
Bus Network Evaluation Factors: System overhead.
Vulnerability.
Expandability.
06/15/15
409
Network Topology
Bus Network Evaluation Factors: Application:- Good choice for small
networks.
Complexity:- Tend to be relatively

uncomplex.
Performance:- Excellent under light load.

06/15/15
410
Network Topology
Bus Network Evaluation Factors: System Overhead:- Relatively low.
Vulnerability:- Failure of one workstation
does not usually affect the network.
Expandability:-Expansion and reconfiguration

are easy.
06/15/15
411
Network Topology
Ring Network: Several
devices
or
computers
are
connected to each other in a closed loop by

a single communication cable.
A ring network is also called loop network.
06/15/15
412
Network Topology
Ring Network: Data must travel around the ring.
A ring can be unidirectional or bi-directional.
06/15/15
413
Network Topology
Ring Network: A ring can be unidirectional or bi-directional.
In the unidirectional ring ,a special software is
needed if one computer should break down.
In bi-directional ring message can be sent in the
opposite direction.
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414
Network Topology
Ring Network Advantages: Short cable length.
No wiring closet space require.
Suitable for optical fibers.
06/15/15
415
Network Topology
Ring Network Disadvantages: Node failure causes network failure.
Difficult to diagnose faults.
Network reconfiguration is difficult.
Topology affects the access protocol.
06/15/15
416
Ring Network
06/15/15
417
Network Topology
Ring Network Evaluation Factors: Application:-
Good in situations
capacity must be allocated equally.
Complexity:-
Requires
hardware to implement.
relatively
where
complex
Performance:- Performance under heavy traffic

remains stable with less delay.
06/15/15
418
Network Topology
Ring Network Evaluation Factors: System overhead.
Vulnerability:- Failure of a single workstation
can cause system failure because of the
interdependence of the workstations.
Expandability:-
Easy
to
add
or
delete
workstations.
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419
Network Topology
Star network: Several devices or computers are
connected to one centralized computer.
None of the other computers can
communicate with each other if the central
computer breaks down
06/15/15
420
Star Network
06/15/15
421
Network Topology
Advantages of the Star Network: Ease of service: -Provide easy access for
service of reconfiguration of the network.
One device per connection:single

connection
disconnecting one node.
06/15/15
Failure of a
typically
involves
422
Network Topology
Advantages of the Star Network: Centralize control/problem diagnosis.
Simple access protocols: Access protocols
are very simple.
06/15/15
423
Network Topology
Disadvantages of the Star Network:-
Long cable length:-
Each node is directly

connected to center,the star topology use a large
quantity of cable.
Difficult to expand.
Central node dependency: node fails,the

inoperable.
06/15/15
entire
network
If the central
is rendered
424
Network Topology
Star Network Evaluation Factors: Application:-
It is the best way to integrate

voice and data services.
Complexity:-
WSs attached to a central WS

may act as the central server for other WSs.
Performance:- Good for moderate load.

06/15/15
425
Network Topology
Star Network Evaluation Factors: System overhead:- Network overhead is high.
Vulnerability:- System reliability is depend on
central server.
Expandability:- Expandability may be severely

restricted.
06/15/15
426
Network Topology
Tree Network: Several devices or computers are linked in
a hierarchical fashion.
Also known as hierarchical network.
06/15/15
427
Tree Network
Node g
Node f
Node i
Node h
Node e
Node d
Node k
06/15/15
Node j
Node b
Node c
428
Network Topology
Advantage of Tree network: Easy to extend
Fault isolation
06/15/15
429
Network Topology
Advantages of Tree network: Easy to extend:-
Tree is divided into

subunits,it is easier to add new nodes.
Fault isolation:-
It is possible to disconnect
whole branches of the network from the main
structure.
06/15/15
430
Network Topology
Disadvantages of Tree network: Dependent on the root:-If the headend device fails to operate, the entire
network is rendered inoperable.
06/15/15
431
Network Topology
Mesh Network: It has point-to-point connections between
every device.
Each device requires an interface for every
other device.
06/15/15
432
Network Topology
True Mesh Network:-
06/15/15
433
Network Topology
Hybrid Mesh Network:-
06/15/15
434
Network Topology
Advantages or Disadvantages of
Mesh Network:Units affected by Media Failure.
Ease of Installation.
Ease of Troubleshooting.
Ease of reconfiguration.
06/15/15
435
Network Topology
Mesh Network: Units affected by Media Failure:- No units
are affected by Media failure.
Ease of Installation:- It is difficult to install

because each device must be linked directly to all
other devices.
06/15/15
436
Network Topology
Mesh Network: Ease
of
Troubleshooting:-
troubleshoot because each

independent of all other devices.
Easy
medium link
to
is
Ease of reconfiguration:- Difficult to reconfigure

because each device is connected to all other devices.
06/15/15
437
Network Topology
Star Ring Network: Here two topologies are combined for
achieving the best of both.
The configuration consists of a number of
concentration points connected together
in a ring.
06/15/15
438
Network Topology
Star Ring Network: The star-ring operates exactly in the same
way as a normal ring.
Sometimes more descriptively called the
star-shaped ring.
06/15/15
439
Network Topology
Advantages of the Star Ring
Network: Fault diagnosis and isolation.
Ease of expansion.
Cabling.
06/15/15
440
Network Topology
Network: Fault diagnosis and isolation:-
The
presence of concentration points in the network

greatly eases fault diagnosis.
Ease of expansion.
06/15/15
441
Network Topology
Network: Cabling:-The
concentration points in a
star ring network are connected via a

single cable.
06/15/15
442
Wiring Closets
06/15/15
Star ring or star shape ring topology
443
Star shaped Ring

RI
To another wire
R1
center
Work
stations
RI=Ring interface
Relay
06/15/15
RI
444
Network Topology
Disadvantages of Star Ring
Network:Intelligent
required:-
concentration
points
Cabling:- The intercloset cabling in a star-ring

is critical to its operation.
06/15/15
445
Data Transmissions
Methods of data Transmissions: Asynchronous transmission
Synchronous transmission
Isochronous transmission
06/15/15
446
Data Transmissions
Methods of data Transmissions:Asynchronous transmission: One character is transmitted at a time.
The transfer is controlled by start bit and stop
bits.
06/15/15
447
Data Transmissions
Methods of data Transmissions:Asynchronous transmission: It use low speed transmission of data in
conjunction with narrow band and few slower
speed (less than 1200bps)
06/15/15
448
Data Transmissions
Methods of data Transmissions: Asynchronous transmission
1 10011101
1 1
star character parity stop

06/15/15
449
Data Transmissions
Methods of data Transmissions:Synchronous transmission: Blocks of character are transmitted in timed
synchronization characters.
Receiving device accept data until it get
ending signal.
06/15/15
450
Data Transmissions
Methods of data Transmissions:Synchronous transmission :-
synch synch character character character
character CRC end
synch synch graphicdata CRC END

synch synch06/15/15
character character character character CRC end
451
Data Transmissions
Methods of data Transmissions:SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION: It resist timing errors much better than
asynchronous
because
both
the
transmitter and receiver use same clock.

06/15/15
452
Data Transmissions
Methods of data Transmissions:Isochronous transmission: Use a constant frequency transmissionclock to
crate set time slots.
Clock is generated by designated network device.
06/15/15
453
Data Transmissions
Methods of data Transmissions:Isochronous transmission: Multiple frames can be inserted into each
slot until the slot is full.
Clock is provided by constant rate by a
single device.
06/15/15
454
Rate of Data Transmission

Rate at which data travel on the
communication channel is called as Rate
of Data Transmission.
The rate at data is transmit is called as
Baud Rate.
06/15/15
455
Rate of Data Transmission

Typical data transmission rate is 300 ,1200,
2400, 4800, 9600bps.
Modem used with computer typically use
300,1200 or 2400 bps
06/15/15
456
Transmission Modes
Data transmission occur in one of
the three modes: Simplex mode
Half duplex mode
Full duplex mode
06/15/15
457
Transmission Modes
Data transmission occur in one of
the three modes:-
Simplex modes
computer
One way only

Terminal
06/15/15
458
Transmission Modes
Simplex mode: It can not do both I.e send and receive the
data.
Simplex mode (circuits) are seldom used.
06/15/15
459
Transmission Modes
Data transmission occur in one of the
three modes
HALF DUPLEX MODE:-
Terminal
06/15/15
Both way
at a time only one
computer
460
Transmission Modes
HALF DUPLEX MODE: The device use Half Duplex Mode can either
be able to send or receive the data but not
simultaneously.
Example is citizen band radio.
06/15/15
461
Transmission Modes
FULL DUPLEX MODE: Faster mode since avoid delay that occur in
Half Duplex Mode
computer
Terminal
06/15/15
Both way
simultaneously
462
DATA TRANSMISSION
Forms of Data Transmission: Analog data transmission.
Digital data transmission.
06/15/15
463
DATA TRANSMISSION
Analog Data Transmission: It is the transmission of the data in a
continuous wave form as:-
06/15/15
464
DATA TRANSMISSION
Digital Data Transmission: It is the transmission of data using
distinct 0 and 1 states.
06/15/15
465
MODULATION
To overcome these following
problems we need modulation: It is a process in which some characteristics
of high frequency sine wave is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of
the message generally called modulating
signal.
06/15/15
466
NEED OF MODULATION
To overcome these following
problems we need modulation: For efficient radiation and reception,the
transmitting and receiving antennas would
have heights comparable to a quarterwave-length of the frequency used.
06/15/15
467
NEED OF MODULATION
When signal frequencies are transmitted
directly, all sound is concentrated within
the range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, so that all
signal from the different sources would be
hopelessly and inextricably mixed up.
06/15/15
468
BASEBAND
COMMUNICATION
Baseband communication corresponds to

transmission of the band of frequencies of
the signal delivered by the sources.
In telephony, the baseband is the audio
band of 0 to 3.4kHz .
In television , the baseband is the video
band occupying 0 to 4.3MHz .
06/15/15
469
BASEBAND
COMMUNICATION
In baseband communication,
signals
are
baseband
transmitted
without
modulation, that is, without any shift in the

range of frequencies of the signals.
06/15/15
470
BASEBAND
COMMUNICATION
Because the baseband signals have
sizeable power at low frequencies ,they
cannot be transmitted over a radio link , but
are suitable for transmission over a pair of
wires .
06/15/15
471
BASEBAND
COMMUNICATION
Local telephone communication and shorthaul PCM use baseband communication.
Because baseband communication uses
only baseband frequencies,its uses are
rather restricted.
06/15/15
472
BASEBAND
COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES:-
The vast spectrum of frequencies available

because of technological advances
cannot be utilized by a baseband scheme.
06/15/15
473
BASEBAND
COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES:-
By modulating several baseband signals

and shifting their spectra to nonoverlapping bands , one can use all the
available band width more efficiently.
06/15/15
474
BASEBAND
COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES:-
Long-haul communication over a radio link

also required modulation to shift the signal
spectrum to higher frequencies to enable
efficient power radiation using antennas of
reasonable dimensions .
06/15/15
475
BASEBAND
COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES:-
It facilitates exchange of transmission

bandwidth for the signal-to-noise ratio.
06/15/15
476
CARRIER
COMMUNICATION
This communication uses modulation

to shift the frequency spectrum of a
signal .
06/15/15
477
CARRIER
COMMUNICATION
In this mode,one of the basic parameters of

a sinusoidal carrier of high frequency W C
is varied so that any instant its deviation
from unmodulated value is proportion to
the baseband or modulating signal Vm(t).
06/15/15
478
CARRIER
COMMUNICATION
This results in Amplitude modulation,
Frequency modulation or Phase
modulation.
06/15/15
479
TYPES OF MODULATION
Continuous wave (C-W) modulation
Pulse modulation
Analog modulation
digital modulation
06/15/15
480
TYPES OF MODULATION
Continuous wave (C-W)
modulation: In this case, the carrier is a sinusoidal wave .
It is a continuous process therefore, suited
to signals that are continuously varying
with time.
06/15/15
481
TYPES OF MODULATION
Pulse modulation: Here, the carrier is a periodic train of
pulses.
It is a discontinues, discrete process.
06/15/15
482
TYPES OF MODULATION
The modulation is characterized by
frequency techniques.
It goes hand to hand as telegraphy &
teletype.
06/15/15
483
Analog Modulation
Here parameter modulation varies in
direct propagation to the modulating
signals.
06/15/15
484
Coded of digital
modulation
Where message is converted to one

symbolic language to another.
If a message is originally a continuous
time function, it must be sampled and
quantized prior to encoding.
06/15/15
485
Fundamental limitation
In a communication system: Technological Constraints.
Fundamental Physical Limitations.
06/15/15
486
Technological Constraints: These arise due to engineering facts and are
related to problems of feasibility such diverse
consideration as equipment availability ,
interaction and compatibility with the existing
system and economic factors etc.
06/15/15
487
Fundamental Physical
Limitations: These are imposed by the system itself , the
laws of nature that govern the task.
These limitations just and cannot be
resolved even in theory.
06/15/15
488
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission lines, the backbone
of the network, come in two basic
varieties : baseband
broadband.
06/15/15
489
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Baseband communication links are
twisted pair wire & baseband coaxial cable.
Broadband
media
are
broadband
coaxial & fiber optic cable.
06/15/15
490
BROAD BAND
COMMUNICATIONS
Inter-continental telephone subscriber
dealing and instant world wide telecasts
these days gives us an idea how recent
broad band long-distance communication
has come up so fast.
06/15/15
491
BROAD BAND
COMMUNICATIONS
It started way back in 1850s when first
transatlantic telegraph cable was used
and
then
first
transatlantic
radio
transmission in 1901 by Marconii used for

communication.
06/15/15
492
BROAD BAND
COMMUNICATIONS
The bandwidth of these two systems were

very low, hence the rate of transmission of
information was very slow.
06/15/15
493
BROAD BAND
COMMUNICATIONS
The first real development in broadband

communications came in 1915 when
vacuum-tube repeater I.e. intermediate
amplifies together with carrier telephone
were used provide coast-to-coast
telephone service in USA, featuring a few
channels.
06/15/15
494
BROAD BAND
COMMUNICATIONS
By 1941,a coaxial system with 480

channels was in use over a distance of
320kilometers.
06/15/15
495
BROAD BAND
COMMUNICATIONS
Trans-continental
communication
became broadband and took off a 1956 ,in

the year in which two cables one for each
direction of transmission , and had a
capacity for 48 simultaneous telephone
conversations .
06/15/15
496
BROAD BAND
COMMUNICATIONS
By 1984 there were nine major

transatlantic with the two biggest
each having capacity of 4000 two-way
cables,circuits.
06/15/15
497
BROAD BAND
COMMUNICATIONS
Fibre optics are the most recent

development for long-distance .
06/15/15
498
BROAD BAND
COMMUNICATIONS
Communication Terrestrial fibre-optics

cable first begin to the used in late 1970s by
Japan and Europe submarine cable pose an
entirely different set of problems and
hence first fibre-optics is expected to be in
service between Hawaii-California in the
begging of 1989.
06/15/15
499
06/15/15
500
MULTIPLEXING
DEFINITION: Multiplexing is the process of combining
the transmission character by character
from several devices into a single data
stream .
06/15/15
501
MULTIPLEXING
Terminal a
MUTIPLEXER
S
COMPUTER
Terminal b
06/15/15
502
MULTIPLEXING
MULTIPLEXER: It is a device that produce multiplexing.
It allows the communication channels to
transmit much more data .
06/15/15
503
MULTIPLEXING
A
B
MUX
MUX
C
MULTIPLEXING
06/15/15
504
MULTIPLEXING
METHODS USED BY THE MULTIPLEXER
TO COMMUNICATE: Frequency-division multiplexing. ( FDM )
Time-division multiplexing. ( TDM )
Statistical time -division multiplexing.
Stat TDM )
06/15/15
(
505
MULTIPLEXING
Frequency-division multiplexing: It uses separate frequencies to establish
multiple channels within a broadband
medium.
06/15/15
506

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Computer Networks

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Department of computer Engineering

Guru Nanak Dev Polytechnic.,

TWO floppies includes 1000 Slides.

Features of Computer Networks

Features of Computer Networks

You may Learn

Almost all the companies where computer

Theory 15 credits and 10 marks for Practical .

75 +25 =100 (External Assessment)

Th Hrs Pr Hrs Tot

Minimum Passing Marks 30 out of 75

Practical performance, Viva, Theory test

Books and references

Able to exchange information.

A system with one control unit & many

Difference between Distribute

Difference between Distributed

With a network, Users must explicitly log

system built on top of a network.

Physical Distance between processors:

Interprocessor Processor located Example

Data flow machine

Local area network

100 mbuilding Local area network

country Wide area network

offices & factory to share resources &

Computing Models and

Computing Models and

Data processing Models are:-

DISTRIBUTED DATA PROCESSING

Computing Models and

Computing Models and

Computing Models and

Computing Models and Network

DDP: Response time for many application are

Computing Models and

A loss of organizational control.

Computing Models and

Computing Models and

Computing Models and

Computing Models and

Computing Models and

Compatibility problems: If the distributed

Computing Models and

Unskilled users:- This problem occurs when

Support difficulties:- Maintaining a separate

Computing Models and

Centralized Data Processing:-

In centralized computing,the mainframe

computational abilities while the terminal

Computing Models and

Collaborative Data Processing:-

A new model is called Collaborative Data

Computing Models and

Collaborative Data Processing:

It is a synergic type of distributed

Computing Models and

Collaborative Data Processing:-

Instead of communicating data between

Local Area Network

FEATURES OF A LOCAL AREA

FEATURES OF A LOCAL AREA

FEATURES OF A LOCAL AREA