Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sources of Water:
The Main Sources Of Water Are:
1). Rain water
2). River water
3). Spring or well water
4). Sea water
1). Rain water: Rain water is the purest form of natural water.
However, it dissolves considerable amount of gases (CO 2 SO2 - NO
NO2 etc) and suspended solid particles from atmosphere, during its
journey through it and becomes polluted.
2). River water: River are formed by rain and spring waters. During
its flow over the surfacee of land, it dissolves minerals of the soil such as
chlorides, sulfates, bicarbonates of sodium, calcium, magnesium ions
etc..
3). Spring or well water or Lake water: it contains cosnstant
chemical composition. The minerals present in the lake water in the
form dissolved form and high quantity of organic matter.
4). Sea water: It is the most impure form of natural water. It contains
larger percentage of the dissolved salts (above 3.5%) out of which about
2.6% is NaCl. The NaCl which is present in the dissolved form in sea
water will come out as NaCl crystals due to evaporation of sea water.
The other salts present in the sea water are sulphates of sodium,
bicarbonates of potassium, magnesium, calcium, bromides of
potassium, magnesium etc.
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
Underground water: Spring & well waters are the underground water
sources. They are in general clearer in appearance due to the filtering
action of the soil.
They contain more of the dissolved salts generally, underground water
is of high organic purity.
DOMESTIC USE:
(a) Washing and Bathing : Hard water does not form lather easily
with soap is wasted
(b) Drinking : Hard water causes bad effects on our digestive system.
Sometimes, stone formation takes place in kidneys
(c) Cooking : The boiling point of water is increased due to the
presence of salts. Hence, more fuel and time are required for
cooking.
10
(Soluble)
11
Name Of Water
0-70 mg/litre
Soft Water
70-150 mg/litre
150-300 mg/litre
Hard Water
12
TYPES OF HARDNESS
The hardness of water is of two types
(1) Temporary hardness (or) Carbonate hardness
(2) Permanent hardness (or) Non-Carbonate hardness
(3) Temporary Hardness: Temporary hardness is caused by two
dissolved bicarbonate salts Ca(HCO3) and Mg(HCO3). The
hardness is called Temporary Hardness
Because it can be removed easily by means of boiling.
Ca(HCO3)2 Heating CaCo3 + H2O + CO2
Mg(HCO3)2 Heating Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2
13
14
DEGREE OF HARDNESS:
15
16
17
(2) Milli grams Per Litre (mg/litre): mg/L is the number of milligrams
of CaCo3 equivalent hardness present per litre of water.
i.e., 1 mg/L = 1 mg of CaCo3 equivalent hardness of 1 L of water.
But 1 L water weights = 1 kg of water
1 kg = 1000 gms
= 1000 x 1000 mg
= 106 mg
1 mg/L = 1 mg of CaCo3 equivalent per 106 mg of water
= 1 part of CaCo3 equivalent per 106 parts of water
1 mg/L = 1 ppm
18
(or)
It is defined as the number of parts of CaCo 3 equivalent hardness per
70,000 parts of water.
1ocl = 1 grain of CaCo3 eq. hardness per gallon of water.
(or)
1ocl = 1 part of CaCo3 eq. hardness per 70,000 parts of water
1 ppm = 0.07ocl
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
19
0.1o Fr = 1 ppm
Note: The hardness of water can be converted into all the four units by
making use of the following interconversion formula
1 ppm = 1mg/L = 0.07ocl = 0.1oFr
1ocl = 1.43oFr = 14.3 ppm = 14.3 mg/L
20
PROBLEM:
(1) A sample of water gives an analysis 13.6 mg/L of CaSO 4. 7.3 mg/L of
Mg(HCO3)2. Calculate the total hardness and permanent hardness.
Sol:
Salt
Quantity Present
(mg/L)
CaSO4
13.6
136
13.6x100 = 10
136
Mg(HCo3)2
7.3
146
7.3 x 100 = 5
146
21
PROBLEM
(2) Calculate the total hardness of 1000 litre of a sample of water
containing the following impurities 16.2 mg/L of Ca(HCO 3), 11.1
mg/L of CaCl2, 60 mg/L of MgSo4 and Ca(HCO3)2, 11.1 mg/L of
CaCl2, 60 mg/L of MgSo4 and 19 mg/L if MgCl2.
Sol:
Salt
Quantity Present
(mg/L)
Ca(HCO3)2
16.2
162
16.2x100 = 10
162
CaCl2
11.1
111
11.1x100 = 10
111
MgSO4
60
120
60x100 = 50
120
MgCl2
19
95
19x100 = 20
95
22
PROBLEM
(3) A Sample of hard water contains the following dissolved salts per litre.
CaCl2 = 111 mgs, CaSO4 = 1.36 mgs, Ca(HCO3)2 = 16.2 mgs,
Mg(HCO3)2 = 14.6 mgs, Silica = 40 gms, Turbidity = 10 mgs.
Calculate the temporary, permanent and total hardness of water in ppm,
O
cl & OFr
Sol:
Salt
Quantity Present
(mg/L)
M.W
t
Eq. of CaCo3
CaCl2
111 mg/L
111
111x100 =100
111
CaSO4
1.36 mg/L
136
1.36x100 = 1
136
Ca(HCO3)2
16.2 mg/L
162
16.2x100 = 10
162
Mg(HCO3)2
14.6 mg/L
146
14.6x100 = 10
146
Note: Si & Turbidity must not be considered because they do not cause
hardness to water.
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
23
24
PROBLEM
(04) 1 litre of water from an underground reservoir in Tirupati town in
A.P showed the following analysis for contents:
Mg(HCO3)2 = 42 mg; Ca(HCO3)2 = 146 mg; CaCl2 = 71 mg;
NaOH = 40 mg; MgSO4 = 48 mg; Organic impurities = 100 mg;
Calculate temporary and permanent and total hardness of the sample of
10,000 lit. of water
Note: NaOH & Organic impurities donot causes any hardness.
The Bicarbonate salt cause temp hardness,
While other are responsible for Permanent hardness.
Mg(HCO3)2 = 42 mg in 10,000 (or) 42/10,000 ppm
Its CaCO3 eqs are = [42/10000] x [100/146]
Similarly for Ca(HCO3)2 it is [146/10000] x [100/162]
For CaCl2 it is [71/10000] x [100/111]
For MgSO4 it is [48/10000] x [100/120]
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26
PROBLEM
(5) Calculate the temporary & permanent hardness of water in ocl,
containing the following dissolved salts. CaCO 3=50 mg/L,
MgCl2=9.5 Mg/L, CaCl2=2.2 mg/L and MgSO4=12 mg/L
Note: CaCO3 is an insoluble salt. It does not cause hardness. If CaCO 3 is
given as H.C.S, It must be considered as Ca(HCO 3)2 whose hardness
is expressed in the term of CaCO3 equivalent
Salt
Quantity Present
(mg/L)
CaCO3
50 mg/L
100
50 mg/L
MgCl2
9.5 mg/L
95
9.5x100 = 10
95
MgSO4
12 mg/L
120
12x100 = 10
12
CaCl2
22.2 mg/L
111
22.2x100 = 20
111
Sol:
27
28
2.
3.
4.
5.
The disodium salt of EDTA under the trade name Triplex-III is used
for complexation
29
EDTA
M-DETA COMPLEX
30
BASIC PRINCIPLE:
When hardwater comes in contact with EDTA, at p H 9-10, the Ca+2 &
Mg+2 forms stable, colourless complex with EDTA.
Ca+2
+ + EBT pH 9-10 Ca-EBT
Mg+2
Mg-EBT (Complex)
(from hard water)
To the hard water sample the blue coloured indicator EBT is added
along with the NH4Cl, NH4OH buffer solution. EBT forms an
unstable, winered complex with Ca+2 & Mg+2
Ca+2
+
(stable, colourless)
Mg+2
31
1.
32
100
= 0.01 M
33
34
Not the burette reading and let the volume be x-ml. Repeat the titration
to get concurrent values.
(6) STANDARDISATION OF HARD WATER SAMPLE:
Pipette out 20 ml of the water sample into a 250ml conical flask, add 2-3 ml
of buffer solution and 2-3 drops of EBT indicator.
Titrate the wine red coloured solution with EDTA taken in the burette
till a clear blue coloured endpoint is obtained
35
Cool the solution and filter the water into a flask, wash the beaker and
precipitate with distilled water and add the washing to conical flask
Add 2-3 ml of buffer solution and 2-3 drops of EBT indicator and
titrate with EDTA solution taken in the burette till a clear blue colour
end point is obtained.
36
CALCULATIONS:
Molarity of standard hard water solution = 0.01 M.
(Calculated in the preparation of standard hard water)
37
M2 = V1M1 =
V2
20x 0.01
titre value (xml)
38
39
M3 = V2M2 = V4 M4
n2
n4
V2= volume of EDTA
M2= molarity of EDTA
V4 = volume of water sample containing permanent hardness (100 ml)
M4= Molarity of water sample containing permanent hardness
40
41
1 gm of CaCO3 was dissolved in HCl and the solution was made upto
one litre with distilled water. 50 ml of the above solution required 30 ml
of EDTA solution on titration. 50 ml of hard water sample required 40
ml of the same solution of EDTA for titration. 50 ml of the hard water
after boiling, filtering etc. required 30 ml of the same EDTA solution for
titration.
Calculate the temporary hardness of the water
42
43
44
0.5 g of CaCO3 was dissolved in dil. HCl & diluted to 1000 ml. 50 ml of
this solution required 48 ml of EDTA solution for titration. 50 ml of
hard water sample required 15 ml of EDTA solution for titration. 50 ml
of same water sample on boiling, filtering etc required 10 ml of EDTA
solution.
45
46
BOILER TROUBLES:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
47
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
48
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
49
50
Priming & Foaming may cause the following boiler troubles:(1) The actual height of the water in boiler is not judged
(2) Wastage of heat with the result that it becomes difficult to keep up
steam pressure and efficiency of the boiler is lowered
() CAUSTIC EMBRILLEMENT:
Caustic embrillement is a term used for the appearance of cracks inside the
boiler particularly at those places which are under stress such as
rivetted joints due to the high concentration of alkali leading to the
failure of the boiler. The cracks have appearance of brittle fracture.
Hence, the failure is called Caustic Embrillement
51
52
(1) By adding Na2SO4, tannin etc to the boiler water which blocks hair
cracks. There by preventing infiltration of caustic soda solution
(2) By using sodium phosphate as the softening agent instead of sodium
carbonate
53
The cracking or weaking of the boiler metal causes failure of the boiler
(3) BOILER CORROSION: Boiler corrosion is a decay of boiler material
by chemical/electro chemical attack by its environment is called Boiler
Corrosion
Reasons for boiler corrosion are:
(a) Dissolved oxygen
(b) Dissolved SO2
(c) Acids from dissolved salts
54
55
(a) Dissolved CO2 : Dissolved CO2 has slow corrosive effect on the
materials of boiler plate.
Source of CO2 into water is the boiler feed water which contains
bicarbonates
Under the high temperature and pressure, maintained in the boiler the
bicarbonates decompose to produce CO2
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2
The disadvantage of the CO2 is slow corrosive effect on boiler plates by
producing carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
56
Removal of CO2:
By the addition of calculated quantity of ammonia.
2NH4OH + CO2 (NH4)2CO3 + H2O
(c) Acids from dissolved salts: Water containing dissolved Mg-salts liberate
acids on hydrolysis
MgCl2 + 2H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl
Disadvantages of the acid production is that the acids react with Iron of the
boiler plate in a chain reaction to produce decay of the metal.
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
FeCl2 + H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl
Fe(OH)2 + H2O + 1O2 Fe2O3.3H2O (ferric oxide)
2
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
57
58
SLUDGE: Sludge is a soft, loose and slimy precipitate formed within the
boiler. Sludge are formed by substances which have greater solubilities
in hot water than in cold water.
Salts like MgCO3, MgSO4, MgCl2, CaCl2 etc., are responsible for sludge
formation in boilers.
Disadvantages:
(a) Sludge is a bad conductor of heat, hence it wastes a portion of heat
generated.
(b) Excessive sludge formation reduces the effeciency of the boiler.
59
Prevention:
(a) Frequent blow-down operation should be carried out
(b) By using well-softened water.
SCALES: Scales are the hard, adhering ppt formed on the inner wall of
the boiler
Very difficult to remove once they are deposited on Inner wall of the boiler
They formed due to decomposition of Calcium bicarbonate, Calcium
sulphate etc..,
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
60
REMOVAL OF SCALES:
(1) Frequent blowdown operation can remove the scales which are loosely
adhering
(2) By chemical treatment
eg: CaCO3 scale removed by washing with 5-10% of HCl
(3) By giving thermal shocks
Prevention:
By using softening water which is discussed separately in treatment of
water.
61
62
63
64
65
(a) Other Reactions: Free acids, CO2, H2S dissolved iron and aluminium
salts etc are also removed in this process
2HCl + Na2CO3 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
H2SO4 + Na2CO3 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O
H2S + Ca(OH)2 CaS + 2H2O
FeSO + Ca(OH)2 Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4
Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + H2O
66
67
COLD-LIME-SODA PROCESS:
68
In this method the lime & soda are mixed with hard water at room
temperature with constant stirring
Generally the precipitates formed by this process are finely divided and
in order to settle the precipitates, coagulants like alum, ferrous sulphate
etc are added
The sludge is removed from the bottom of the outer chamber while the
softened water passes through a wood fibre filter to ensure the complete
removal of any residual sludge particles
The clear softened water is withdrawn from the top of the outer
chamber. The softened water from this process contains a residual
hardness of 50-60ppm
69
HOT-LIME-SODA PROCESS:
70
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
71
72
73
PROBLEMS:
1) Calculate the quantities of Lime & Soda required to soften 5000 litres of
water containing the following salts:
MgCl2 = 15.5 ppm; Ca(HCO3)2 = 32.5 ppm,
CaSO4 = 22.4 ppm; Mg(HCO3)2 = 14.6 ppm
NaCl = 50 ppm
Soln: Calculation of Calcium Carbonate Equivalents:
Hard Salt
Weight
(ppm)
MgCl2
15.5
95
15.5x100 = 16.31
95
Ca(HCO3)2
32.5
162
CaSO4
22.4
136
Mg(HCO3)2
14.6
146
x 100
74
75
Soda reqd for litre of water = 106 [MgCl2 + CaSO4] as CaCO2 eq.
100
= 106 [16.31 + 16.47]
100
= 106 [32.78]
100
= 34.74 mg
Soda reqd for 5000 litres of water:
= 34.74 x 5000
1000
= 0.173 kg
76
These are porous and have greater softening capacity than natural
zeolite.
77
78
79
80
ADVANTAGES:
1) The equipment is small and easy to handle
2) It requires less time for softening
3) Water obtained from this process contains a residual hardness upto 10
ppm
4) Easy to regenerate
5) No sludge is formed in this process
81
DISADVANTAGES:
1) Highly turbid water cannot be treated by this process.
2) The process exchanges only Ca+2 & Mg2+ ions by sodium ions and hence
the softened water contains more sodium salts.
3) All the acidic ions like HCO3-, CO32- etc are not removed by this
process. Sodium bicarbonate decomposes in the boiler releasing CO2
which leads to corrosion. While Na2CO3 is hydrolysed to NaOH which
creates castic embrittlement of boiler.
82
83
Thus, the hardness producing cations (Ca2+, Mg2+ etc) are removed
1) The second chamber is packed with anion exchange resin. The water
coming out of the first chamber contains H+, Cl-, SO42- and HCO3- ions.
It is now passed through anion exchange resin bed which can exchange
OH- ions with anions like Cl-, SO42- and HCO3RlOH + Cl- RlCl + OH2RlOH + SO42- Rl2SO42- + 2OHRlOH + HCO3- RlHCO3 + OHThus, hardness producing anions like Cl-, SO42- and HCO3- are removed.
84
85
86
REGENERATION OF RESINS:
Regeneration of Resin the resin bed gets exhausted, when used for a long
period and can be regenerated:
(a) The exhausted cation exchange resin can be regenerated by passing dil.
HCl (H+)
R2Mg2+ + 2H+ 2RH+ + Mg2+
R2Ca2+ + 2H+ 2RH+ + Ca2+
(b) The exhausted an ion exchange resin can be regenerated by passing dil.
NaOH (OH-)
RlCl + OH- RlOH- + ClR2SO42- + 2OH- 2RlOH- + SO42R2HCO3- + OH- RlOH- + HCO3-
87
ADVANTAGES:
1) The softened water by this method is completely free from all salts and
fit for use in boilers
2) It produces very low hardness nearly 2 ppm
3) Highly acidic or alkaline water can be treated by this process
DISADVANTAGES:
4) The equipment is costly
5) More expensive chemicals are required for regeneration
6) Turbid water cannot be treated by this method
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
Under the influence of applied e.m.f. across the electrodes the cations
move towards cathode through the membrane and the anions move
towards anode through the membrane.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRODIALYSIS:
97
REVERSE OSMOSIS:
98
METHOD OF PURIFICATION:
The reverse osmosis cell consists of a chamber fitted with a semi-permeable
membrane, above which sea water/impure water is taken and a
pressure of 15 to 40 kg/cm2 is applied on the sea water/impure water.
The pure water is forced through the semi permeable membrane which
is made of very thin films of cellulose acelate. However superior
membrane made of Polymethacrylate and Polyamide polymers have
come to use
99
ADVANTAGES:
Both ionic and non-ionic colloidal and high molecule weight organic
matter is removed from the water sample
100
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
The water must be free from pathogenic bacteria and dissolved gases
like H2S.
101
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
Screening
Aeration
Sedimentation
Storage
and
Distribution
Sterilisation
(or)
Disinfectation
Filtration
102
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
ii)
103
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
3) SEDIMENTATION:
i) Plain Sedimentation: The process of removing big sized suspended solid
particles from water is called Plain Sedimentation. In this process,
water is stored in big tanks for several hours.
70% of solid particles settle down due to the force of gravity
ii) Sedimentation By Coagulation:
104
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
105
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
107
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment
DISADVANTAGES:
i)
ii)
This nascent oxygen kills bacteria as well as oxidises the organic matter
present in water
108
ADVANTAGES:
DISADVANTAGES:
109
UNIT: III WATER & Its Treatment