16

VECTOR CALCULUS

VECTOR CALCULUS

Here, we define two operations

that:
Can be performed on vector fields.
Play a basic role in the applications of vector
calculus to fluid flow, electricity, and magnetism.

VECTOR CALCULUS

Each operation resembles differentiation.

However, one produces a vector field

whereas the other produces a scalar field.

VECTOR CALCULUS

16.5
Curl and Divergence
In this section, we will learn about:
The operations of curl and divergence
and how they can be used to obtain
vector forms of Greens Theorem.

CURL

Suppose:
F = P i + Q j + R k is a vector field on

3.

The partial derivatives of P, Q, and R all exist

CURL

Equation 1

Then, the curl of F is the vector field on

defined by:

curl
R Q P R Q P
y z z x x y

CURL

As a memory aid, lets rewrite Equation 1

using operator notation.

We introduce the vector differential operator

(del) as:

x
y
z

CURL

It has meaning when it operates on a scalar

function to produce the gradient of f :

f
f
f
f
x
y
z
f
f
f

x
y
z

CURL

If we think of

as a vector with

components /x, /y, and /z, we can

also consider the formal cross product of
with the vector field F as follows.

CURL

x
P

y
Q

z
R

R Q P R Q P

y z z x x y
curl

CURL

Equation 2

Thus, the easiest way to remember

Definition 1 is by means of the symbolic
expression

curl

CURL

If

Example 1

F(x, y, z) = xz i + xyz j y2 k

find curl F.
Using Equation 2, we have the following
result.

CURL

Example 1

curl F = F =
x
xz

j
k

y z
xyz y 2

2
= y xyz i
z
y

2
y xz j + xyz xz k
z
y
x
x

= 2 y xy i 0 x j + yz 0 k
= y 2 + x i + x j + yz k

CURL

Most computer algebra systems (CAS)

have commands that compute the curl and
divergence of vector fields.
If you have access to a CAS, use these commands
to check the answers to the examples and exercises
in this section.

CURL

Recall that the gradient of a function f of

three variables is a vector field on 3 .
So, we can compute its curl.
The following theorem says that the curl
of a gradient vector field is 0.

GRADIENT VECTOR FIELDS

Theorem 3

If f is a function of three variables that has

continuous second-order partial derivatives,
then

curl f = 0

GRADIENT VECTOR FIELDS

Proof

By Clairauts Theorem,
i

curl f = f =
x
f
x

y
f
y

z
f
z

2 f 2 f
2 f
2 f
=

i +

y z z y z x x z
2 f
2 f
+

x y y x
= 0i + 0 j + 0k = 0

GRADIENT VECTOR FIELDS

Notice the similarity to what we know

from Section 12.4:

a x a = 0 for every three-dimensional (3-D)

vector a.

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

A conservative vector field is one for which

f
So, Theorem 3 can be rephrased as:
If F is conservative, then curl F = 0.
This gives us a way of verifying that
a vector field is not conservative.

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

Example 2

Show that the vector field

F(x, y, z) = xz i + xyz j y2 k
is not conservative.
In Example 1, we showed that:
curl F = y(2 + x) i + x j + yz k
This shows that curl F 0.
So, by Theorem 3, F is not conservative.

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

The converse of Theorem 3 is not true in

general.

The following theorem, though, says that

it is true if F is defined everywhere.
More generally, it is true if the domain is
simply-connectedthat is, has no hole.

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

Theorem 4 is the 3-D version of

Theorem 6 in Section 16.3

Its proof requires Stokes Theorem and

is sketched at the end of Section 16.8

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

Theorem 4

If F is a vector field defined on all of 3

whose component functions have continuous
partial derivatives and curl F = 0, then
F is a conservative vector field.

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

Example 3

a. Show that
F(x, y, z) = y2z3 i + 2xyz3 j + 3xy2z2 k
is a conservative vector field.

b. Find a function f such that f .

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

curl F = F =
x
2 3
y z

Example 3 a

y
z
3
2 2
2 xyz 3 xy z

= 6 xyz 2 6 xyz 2 i 3 y 2 z 2 3 y 2 z 2 j
+ 2 yz 3 2 yz 3 k

=0
As curl F = 0 and the domain of F is 3,
F is a conservative vector field by Theorem 4.

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

E. g. 3 bEqns. 5-7

The technique for finding f was given in

Section 16.3
We have:
fx(x, y, z) = y2z3
fy(x, y, z) = 2xyz3
fz(x, y, z) = 3xy2z2

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

E. g. 3 bEqn. 8

Integrating Equation 5 with respect to x,

we obtain:
f(x, y, z) = xy2z3 + g(y, z)

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

Example 3 b

Differentiating Equation 8 with respect to y,

we get:
fy(x, y, z) = 2xyz3 + gy(y, z)
So, comparison with Equation 6 gives:
gy(y, z) = 0
Thus, g(y, z) = h(z) and
fz(x, y, z) = 3xy2z2 + h(z)

CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

Example 3 b

Then, Equation 7 gives:

h(z) = 0

Therefore,
f(x, y, z) = xy2z3 + K

CURL

The reason for the name curl is that

the curl vector is associated with rotations.

One connection is explained in Exercise 37.

Another occurs when F represents the velocity
field in fluid flow (Example 3 in Section 16.1).

CURL

Particles near (x, y, z) in the fluid tend

to rotate about the axis that points in
the direction of curl F(x, y, z).
The length of
this curl vector is
a measure of
how quickly
the particles move
around the axis.

F = 0 (IRROTATIONAL CURL)

If curl F = 0 at a point P, the fluid is free

from rotations at P.

F is called irrotational at P.
That is, there is no whirlpool or eddy at P.

F=0&F0

If curl F = 0, a tiny paddle wheel moves with

the fluid but doesnt rotate about its axis.

If curl F 0, the paddle wheel rotates about

its axis.
We give a more detailed explanation in Section 16.8
as a consequence of Stokes Theorem.

DIVERGENCE

Equation 9

If F = P i + Q j + R k is a vector field on
and P/x, Q/y, and R/z exist,
the divergence of F is the function of three
variables defined by:

P Q R
div

x y z

CURL F VS. DIV F

Observe that:
Curl F is a vector field.
Div F is a scalar field.

DIVERGENCE

Equation 10

In terms of the gradient operator

x y z
the divergence of F can be written
symbolically as the dot product of and F:

div

DIVERGENCE

If

Example 4

F(x, y, z) = xz i + xyz j y2 k

find div F.
By the definition of divergence (Equation 9 or 10)
we have:

div F = F

2
= xz + xyz + y
x
y
z
= z + xz

DIVERGENCE

If F is a vector field on 3, then curl F is

also a vector field on 3 .
As such, we can compute its divergence.
The next theorem shows that the result is 0.

DIVERGENCE

Theorem 11

If F = P i + Q j + R k is a vector field on 3
and P, Q, and R have continuous secondorder partial derivatives, then
div curl F = 0

DIVERGENCE

Proof

By the definitions of divergence and curl,

div curl F
= F
R Q P R Q P
=
+

x y z y z x z x y
2 R 2Q 2 P 2 R 2Q 2 P
=

=0
x y x z y z y x z x z y
The terms cancel in pairs by Clairauts Theorem.

DIVERGENCE

Note the analogy with the scalar triple

product:
a . (a x b) = 0

DIVERGENCE

Example 5

Show that the vector field

F(x, y, z) = xz i + xyz j y2 k
cant be written as the curl of another vector
field, that is, F curl G
In Example 4, we showed that
div F = z + xz
and therefore div F 0.

DIVERGENCE

Example 5

If it were true that F = curl G, then Theorem 11

would give:
div F = div curl G = 0
This contradicts div F 0.
Thus, F is not the curl of another vector field.

DIVERGENCE

Again, the reason for the name divergence

can be understood in the context of fluid flow.

If F(x, y, z) is the velocity of a fluid (or gas),

div F(x, y, z) represents the net rate of change
(with respect to time) of the mass of fluid (or gas)
flowing from the point (x, y, z) per unit volume.

INCOMPRESSIBLE DIVERGENCE

In other words, div F(x, y, z) measures

the tendency of the fluid to diverge from
the point (x, y, z).

If div F = 0, F is said to be incompressible.

GRADIENT VECTOR FIELDS

Another differential operator occurs when

we compute the divergence of a gradient
vector field f .
If f is a function of three variables,
we have:

div f = f
2

f f f
= 2 + 2 + 2
x
y
z

LAPLACE OPERATOR

This expression occurs so often that

we abbreviate it as 2 f .
The operator 2 is called
the Laplace operator due to its relation to
Laplaces equation
2
2
2

f
2
f 2 2 2 0
x
y
z

LAPLACE OPERATOR

We can also apply the Laplace operator

to a vector field
F=Pi+Qj+Rk
in terms of its components:

P Q R
2

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS THEOREM

The curl and divergence operators

allow us to rewrite Greens Theorem
in versions that will be useful in our
later work.

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS THEOREM

We suppose that the plane region D, its

boundary curve C, and the functions P and Q
satisfy the hypotheses of Greens Theorem.

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS THEOREM

Then, we consider the vector field

F=P i + Q j
Its line integral is:

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS THEOREM

Regarding F as a vector field on 3 with

third component 0, we have:

i
j
k

curl F =
x
y
z
P x, y Q x, y 0
Q P
=

x y

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS THEOREM

Therefore,

Q P
curl F k = k k
x y
Q P
=

x y

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS TH. Equation 12

Hence, we can now rewrite the equation

in Greens Theorem in the vector form

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS TH.

Equation 12 expresses the line integral of

the tangential component of F along C as
the double integral of the vertical component
of curl F over the region D enclosed by C.
We now derive a similar formula involving
the normal component of F.

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS TH.

If C is given by the vector equation

r(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j

atb

then the unit tangent vector (Section 13.2)

is:

x ' t
y ' t
T t =
i+
j
r ' t
r ' t

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS TH.

You can verify that the outward unit normal

vector to C is given by:

y ' t
x ' t
n t =
i
j
r ' t
r ' t

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS TH.

Then, from Equation 3 in Section 16.2,

by Greens Theorem, we have:

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS TH.

b

= P x t , y t y ' t dt Q x t , y t x ' t dt
a

= P dy Q dx
C

P Q
= +
dA

x y
D

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS TH.

However, the integrand in that double

integral is just the divergence of F.

So, we have a second vector form

of Greens Theoremas follows.

VECTOR FORMS OF GREENS TH. Equation 13

This version says that the line integral of

the normal component of F along C is equal
to the double integral of the divergence of F
over the region D enclosed by C.