TN 202: COMPUTER

NETWORKING PROTOCOLS
INTRODUCTION AND OSI
MODEL

Introduction
Introduction to layered models and
Benefits of Using a Layered Model.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

Introduction to layered models

When networks first came into being, computers
could typically communicate only with computers
from the same manufacturer.
For example, companies ran either a complete DECnet
solution or an IBM solutionnot both together.

Layering is a modern network design principle

which divides the communication tasks into a
number of smaller parts, each part accomplishing a
particular sub-task and interacting with the other
parts in a small number of well-defined ways.
To reduce their design complexity, most networks are
organized as a stack of layers or levels, each one
built upon the one below it.

Introduction to layered models

What differs from one network to another: The
The
The
The

number of layers
name of each layer
contents of each layer and
function of each layer.

The purpose of each layer is to offer certain

services to the higher layers, shielding those
layers from the details of how the offered services
are actually implemented.
In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual machine,
offering certain services to the layer above it.

Introduction to layered models

Layers, protocols and interfaces.

Introduction to layered models

The entities comprising the corresponding layers
on different machines are called peers.
The peers may be processes, hardware devices,
or even human beings.
In other words, it is the peers that communicate
by using the protocol.

Introduction to layered models

In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n
on one machine to layer n on another machine.
Instead, each layer passes data and control
information to the layer immediately below it, until
the lowest layer is reached.
Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which
actual communication occurs.
Virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and
physical communication by solid lines in the diagram.

Introduction to layered models

Between each pair of adjacent layers is an
interface.
The interface defines which primitive
operations and services the lower layer makes
available to the upper one.
When network designers decide how many layers
to include in a network and what each one should
do, one of the most important considerations is
defining clean interfaces between the layers.

Introduction to layered models

A set of layers and protocols is called a network

architecture.
The specification of an architecture must contain enough
information to allow an implementer to write the program or
build the hardware for each layer so that it will correctly obey
the appropriate protocol.
It is not even necessary that the interfaces on all machines in
a network be the same, provided that each machine can
correctly use all the protocols.
A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per
layer, is called a protocol stack.

Benefits of Using a Layered Model.

The primary purpose of all such models,
especially the OSI model, is to allow different
vendors networks to interoperate.
It divides the network communication process
into smaller and simpler components, thus aiding
component development, design, and
troubleshooting.
It allows multiple-vendor development through
standardization of network components.

Benefits of Using a Layered Model.

It encourages industry standardization by
defining what functions occur at each layer of the
model.
It allows various types of network hardware and
software to communicate.
It prevents changes in one layer from affecting
other layers, so it does not hamper development.

Benefits of Using a Layered Model.

Layering allows the parts of a communication to
be designed and tested without a combinatorial
explosion of cases, keeping each design relatively
simple.
The most popular layering model are: OSI reference Model
TCP/IP Model.

Other layering model are: IBM Systems Network Architecture (IBM SNA)
Digital Equipment Corporations (DEC, now part of HP)
DNA (Digital Network Architecture)

OSI - The Model

Open Systems Interconnection
Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
Seven layers
A theoretical system delivered too late!

OSI - The Model

Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions.
Each layer relies on the next lower layer to
perform more primitive functions.
Each layer provides services to the next higher
layer.
Changes in one layer should not require changes
in other layers

OSI as Framework for Standardization

Layer Specific Standards

Elements of Standardization
Protocol specification
Operates between the same layer on two systems
May involve different operating system
Protocol specification must be precise
Format of data units
Semantics of all fields
allowable sequence of PDUs

Service definition
In addition to the protocol or protocols that operate at a given
layer, standards are needed for the services that each layer
provides to the next-higher layer.
Typically, the definition of services is equivalent to a
functional description that defines what services are
provided, but not how the services are to be provided.

Elements of Standardization
Addressing
Each layer provides services to entities at the nexthigher layer.
These entities are referenced by means of a service
access point (SAP).
Thus, a network service access point (NSAP) indicates a
transport entity that is a user of the network service.

Service Primitives and Parameters

Services between adjacent layers
expressed in terms of primitives and
parameters
Primitives specify function to be
performed
Parameters pass data and control info

Primitive Types
REQUEST

A primitive issued by a service user to

invoke some service and to pass the
parameters needed to specify fully the
requested service

INDICATION

A primitive issued by a service provider

either to:
Indicate that a procedure has been invoked
by the peer service user on the connection
and to provide the associated parameters, or
Notify the service user of a provider-initiated
action

RESPONSE

A primitive issued by a service user to

acknowledge or complete some procedure
previously invoked by an indication to that
user

CONFIRM

A primitive issued by a service provider to

Timing Sequence for Service Primitives