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C. Varela
Mathematical Functions
Take the mathematical function:
f(x) = x2
f is a function that maps integers to integers:
Function
Function
f: Z Z
Domain
Domain
Range
Range
Function Composition
Given the mathematical functions:
f(x) = x2 , g(x) = x+1
f g is the composition of f and g:
f g (x) = f(g(x))
f g (x) = f(g(x)) = f(x+1) = (x+1) 2 = x2 + 2x + 1
g f (x) = g(f(x)) = g(x2) = x2 + 1
Function composition is therefore not commutative. Function
composition can be regarded as a (higher-order) function with the
following type:
: (Z Z) x (Z Z) (Z Z)
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x. x2
represents the same f function, except it is anonymous.
To represent the function evaluation f(2) = 4,
we use the following -calculus syntax:
( x. x2 2) 22 4
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::=
|
|
v
v.e
(e e)
variable
functional abstraction
function application
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Currying
The lambda calculus can only represent functions of one variable.
It turns out that one-variable functions are sufficient to represent
multiple-variable functions, using a strategy called currying.
E.g., given the mathematical function:
of type
h(x,y) = x+y
h: Z x Z Z
x.x2
x.x+1
(Square)
(Increment)
C:
f. g. x.(f (g x))
Composition)
(Function
Recall
Recallsemantics
semanticsrule:
rule:
((C S) I)
((x.E
x.EM)
M)
E{M/x}
E{M/x}
v.e
we say that free occurrences of variable v in expression e are bound.
All other variable occurrences are said to be free.
E.g.,
( x. y.(x y) (y w))
Bound
BoundVariables
Variables
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Free
Free
Variables
Variables
8
-renaming
Alpha renaming is used to prevent capturing free occurrences of
variables when reducing a lambda calculus expression, e.g.,
( x. y.(x y) (y w))
y.((y w) y)
This reduction erroneously captures the free occurrence of y.
A correct reduction first renames y to z, (or any other fresh variable)
e.g.,
( x. y.(x y) (y w))
( x. z.(x z) (y w))
z.((y w) z)
where y remains free.
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and:
Applicative
Applicative
Order
Order
Normal
Normal
Order
Order
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Church-Rosser Theorem
If a lambda calculus expression can be evaluated in two different
ways and both ways terminate, both ways will yield the same result.
e
e1
e2
e
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((x.E
x.EM)
M)
E{M/x}
E{M/x}
Applicative
Applicative
Order
Order
Normal
Normal
Order
Order
12
Combinators
A lambda calculus expression with no free variables is called a
combinator. For example:
I:
App:
C:
L:
Cur:
Seq:
ASeq:
x.x
(Identity)
f. x.(f x)
(Application)
f. g. x.(f (g x))
(Composition)
( x.(x x) x.(x x))
(Loop)
f. x. y.((f x) y)
(Currying)
x. y.( z.y x)
(Sequencing--normal order)
x. y.(y x)
(Sequencing--applicative order)
where y denotes a thunk, i.e., a lambda abstraction
wrapping the second expression to evaluate.
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x.x
can be written in Oz as follows:
fun {$ X} X end
and it can be written in Scheme as follows:
(lambda(x) x)
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Currying Combinator in Oz
The currying combinator can be written in Oz as follows:
fun {$ F}
fun {$ X}
fun {$ Y}
{F X Y}
end
end
end
It takes a function of two arguments, F, and returns its curried
version, e.g.,
{{{Curry Plus} 2} 3} 5
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((x.E
x.EM)
M)
E{M/x}
E{M/x}
Applicative
Applicative
Order
Order
Normal
Normal
Order
Order
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-renaming
Alpha renaming is used to prevent capturing free occurrences of
variables when beta-reducing a lambda calculus expression.
In the following, we rename x to z, (or any other fresh variable):
( x.(y x) x)
( z.(y z) x)
Only bound variables can be renamed. No free variables can be
captured (become bound) in the process. For example, we cannot
alpha-rename x to y.
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-reduction
( x.E M)
E{M/x}
z.((y w) z)
Where the free y remains free.
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-conversion
x.(E x)
if x is not free in E.
For example:
( x. y.(x y) (y w))
( x. z.(x z) (y w))
z.((y w) z)
(y w)
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19
n=0
n*(n-1)!
n>0
f(n) = n! =
We may try to write it as:
f:
n.(if (= n 0)
1
(* n (f (- n 1))))
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g. n.(if (= n 0)
1
(* n (g (- n 1))))
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n=0
n*(n-1)
n>0
f(n) =
We need to solve the fixpoint equation:
(f X) = X
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X:
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Applicative
Applicative
Order
Order
Y:
f.( x.(f (x x))
x.(f (x x)))
Normal
Normal
Order
Order
You get from the normal order to the applicative order recursion
combinator by -expansion (-conversion from right to left).
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|n+1|:
x.x
x. x.x
(One)
x.|n|
(N+1)
s:
n. x.n
(Successor)
(Zero)
(s 0)
( n. x.n x.x)
Recall
Recallsemantics
semanticsrule:
rule:
((x.E
x.EM)
M)
E{M/x}
E{M/x}
x. x.x
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x. y.x
x. y.y
(False)
|if|:
b. t. e.((b t) e)
(If)
(True)
Recall
Recallsemantics
semanticsrule:
rule:
(((if true) a) b)
((x.E
x.EM)
M)
E{M/x}
E{M/x}
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Exercises
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Exercises
24.PDCS Exercise 2.11.7 (page 31).
25.PDCS Exercise 2.11.9 (page 31).
26.PDCS Exercise 2.11.10 (page 31).
27.Prove that your addition operation is correct using
induction.
28.PDCS Exercise 2.11.11 (page 31).
29.PDCS Exercise 2.11.12 (page 31).
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