DIVERSION

HEADWORKS/ BARRAGE
DESIGN

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Plan of Barrage

COMPONANTS

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Guide Bund

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A. Types of Wear
I.

Sloping Weir of Concrete

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ll. Vertical Drop Weir

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lll.
o

Sloping Weir of Concrete

This type is suitable for soft sandy foundation. It is provided
where difference in weir crest and downstream river bed is not
more than 3.0 m. Hydraulic jump is formed when water passes
over the sloping glacis. Weir of this type is of recent origin.
Enclosed figure shows a sectional weir of this concrete sloping
weir.

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lv. Parabolic Weir

o

A parabolic weir is almost similar to spillway section of Dam. The

weir or body wall for this weir is designed as low head dam. A
cistern is provided at downstream as shown in figure.

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v.
o

Dry Stone Sloping Weir

It is a dry stone or rock fill weir. It consists of body wall and
upstream and downstream dry stones are laid in the form of glacis
with some intervening core wall as shown in the figure below.

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B. Barrage

The function of a Barrage is similar to that of weir, but the

heading up of water is controlled by the gates alone. No solid
obstruction is put across the river. The crest level in the barrage
is kept at a low level.

During the floods, the gates are raised to clear off the high flood
level, enabling the high flood to pass downstream with maximum
afflux.

When the flood recedes, the gates are lowered and the flow is
obstructed, thus raising the water level to the upstream of the
barrage.

Due to this multiple structural components, it is costlier than the

weirs.

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Plan of Barrage

BARRAGES

Comparison of Barrage Vs Weir

Barrage
Low set crest.

Weir
High set crest.

Ponding is done by means of Ponding is done against the raised

Gates
crest or partly against crest and
partly by shutters
Gated over the entire length

Shutters in part length

Gates are of greater height

Shutters are of low height (2 m)

Gates are raised to pass high Shutters are dropped to pass

floods
floods
Perfect control on river flow

No control of river in high floods

Gates convenient to operate

Operation of shutters is slow,

involve labour and time

High floods can be passed with Excessive afflux in high floods

minimum afflux

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BARRAGES
Barrage

Weir

Less silting Upstream due to low Raised

crest
set crest.
Upstream
Longer construction period

causes

silting

Shorter construction period

Silt removal is done through under No means for silt disposal.

sluices.
Road and / or rail bridge can be Not possible to provide road-rail
constructed at low cost.
bridge.
Costly structure.

Relatively cheaper structure

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Site Selection
The following considerations should be kept in mind when deciding
on the site for a Barrage;
i)

The site must have a good command over the area to be

irrigated and must also be not too far distant from the
command area to avoid long feeder channels.

ii) The width of the river at the site should preferably be the
minimum with a well defined and stable river approaches.
iii) A good land approach to the site will reduce the expense of
transportation and, therefore, the ultimate cost of the Barrage.
iv) A good Catchment Area having minimum infiltration and
appropriate gradient to generate sufficient discharge with
minimum rainfall.

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v)

Central approach of the river to the Barrage after Diversion.

This is essential for proper silt control and erosion to avoid
river meandering and minimize the operating expansive.

vi)

The material required for construction should preferably be

available close to the site to minimize the construction cost.

vii) If it is intended to convert the existing inundation canals into

perennial canals, site selection is limited by the position of
the Head Regulator and the alignment of the existing
inundation canals.
viii) A rock foundation is the best but in alluvial plains the bed is
invariably sandy.
ix)

Easy diversion of the river after construction.

BARRAGES AND WEIRS

Investigations for Site Selection

i. Topographic Survey
Topographical survey comprises;
o

An index plan showing the entire catchment area upstream of

the proposed barrage site with position of gauge and
discharge sites, rain gauge sites, important irrigation works,
road and railway crossing, if any.

Contour plan of the area around the proposed barrage site

extending upto 5 km on upstream and downstream sides with
contour interval 0.5 m up to an elevation of at least 2.5 m above
HF.

Cross section of the river at 2 km intervals up to pondage

effect on upstream
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BARRAGES AND WEIRS

Investigations for Site Selection

o

Longitudinal section of the river to indicate observed water

levels along the deep current. In the case of meandering river
the survey is to cover at least two fully developed meanders on
the upstream of the barrage axis and one meander length on
the downstream or as may be required for detailed model
studies.

The cross levels in the river bed are spaced 10 to 30 m

depending upon the topography of the river. The cross
sections are extended on both banks up to 2.5 m above the
HFL as far as possible, otherwise to an extent such that proper
layout of guide and afflux bunds may be decided.

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BARRAGES AND WEIRS

Investigations for Site Selection

ii. Collection of Hydrological Data
The Hydrological data are collected to;
o

Compute the Design Flood.

Assess the available weekly or 10 daily and monthly runoff on

a more realistic basis. For these studies it is necessary to
obtain rainfall and runoff data. For the estimation of design
flood the following data are collected.

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BARRAGES AND WEIRS

Investigations for Site Selection

iii. Surface and Sub Surface Investigations
o

Trial pits are excavated to determine the depth of overburden

comprising large size boulders. Where necessary geophysical
method may be employed to locate the rock surface.

Observations of water table in the area adjacent to the location

of the barrage is also carried out for three-dimensional
electrical analogy studies.

Log Chute: statistics of logs, such as their numbers, sizes and

periods in which they are handled and other relevant data are
collected.

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BARRAGES AND WEIRS

Investigations for Site Selection

iv. Construction Materials
o

Survey of construction materials, their availability with lead for

determining the type of construction and for preparing
comparative estimates. Availability of hard stone may make
masonry preferable to concrete.

v. Diversion Requirements
o

Diversion requirements are worked out in accordance with the

need of the project.

vi. Communication System

o

Investigation includes dislocation of existing facilities and their

relocation and additional facilities required during construction
and operation.
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BARRAGES AND WEIRS

Investigations for Site Selection

vii. Other Miscellaneous Studies
o

These include pond survey for the area submerged upto

normal pond level or within the afflux bunds, as acquired, and
all immovable proprieties coming within it are recorded and
valued.

viii.Environmental and Ecological

o

The effect of Barrage on ecosystem especially on fish, wild life

and human inhabitants adjacent to the structure is studied.
Site selected should cause minimum environmental
disturbances.

ix. Flood Plain

o

Aerial map of the flood

Course.

plain indicating dominant River

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Purpose of Barrage/ Headworks

Headwork serves the following purposes
i)

It raises the water level in the river so that the commendable

area can be increased.

ii)

It regulates the intake of water into the canal.

iii)

It controls the silt entry into the canal.

iv)

It reduces fluctuations in the level of supply in the river.

v)

It stores water for tiding over small periods of short

supplies.

vi)

It facilitates the flood management as well as smooth entry

of river supply into the off-taking canal.

vii) It provides a road way over the river crossing for public
facilitations.

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A) Components of Diversion Headworks (Plan)

i.

Main Weir

ii.

Under Sluice portion

iii.

Divide Wall

iv.

Fish Ladder

v.

Canal Head Regulator

vi.

U/S Guide Bund

vii.

D/S Guide Bund

viii.

Canal Head Regulator

ix.

U/S Marginal Bund

x.

D/S Marginal Bund

xi.

River Training Works

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Plan of Barrage

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B) Components w.r.to X-Section (U/S River Bed)

i)

U/S Flexible Protection

ii)

U/S Sheet Pile

iii)

U/S Concrete Floor

iv)

Intermediate Sheet Pile

v)

The Main Weir Structure

a)
b)
c)

vi)

U/S Glacises 1:4

Crest
D/S Glacises 1:3

D/S Vertical Sheet Piles

vii) Inverted Filter

viii) D/S Flexible Apron
ix)

D/S River Bed

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Cross Section of Barrage

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Sectional View of Barrage

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Brief Description of Components of Barrage

The pervious figures show a Typical Barrage Plan and Cross-section.
The following are their brief description of a Barrage.

i) Main Barrage Portion;

a)

U/S concrete floor to lengthen the seepage path and to protect

the middle portion where the piers, gates and bridge are to be
constructed.

b)

A crest at the required height above the floor on which the gate
rests in its closed position. It also acts as gravity weir during low
supply.

c)

U/S glacis having the necessary slope to join the U/s floor level
to the highest point, the crest.

d)

D/S glacis of suitable shape and slope. This joins the crest to
the D/s floor level (which may be at the river bed level or below).

e)

The hydraulic jump forms on the glacis since it is more stable

than on the horizontal floor and this reduces the length of pucca
work required D/s.

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f)

The D/s floor is made of concrete and is constructed so

as to contain the hydraulic jump. Thus it takes care of
turbulence which would otherwise cause erosion.

g)

It is also provided with friction blocks of a suitable

shape and at distances determined by the hydraulic model
experiments in order to increase friction and destroy
residual kinetic energy.

ii) Sheet Piles

a) U/S Sheet Piles
U/S sheet piles is situated at the U/s end of the U/s
concrete floor. The piles are driven into the soil beyond
the maximum possible scour that may occur. The functions
are;

To protect the Barrage Structure from the scour;

To reduce the uplift pressure on the Barrage floor;
To hold the sand compacted and densified between two sheet
piles to increase the bearing capacity.

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b) Intermediate Sheet Piles
Intermediate sheet piles are situated at the end of u/s and
D/s glacis. These serve as the second line of defence. In
case the U/S or D/S sheet piles collapse due to advancing
scour or undermining. Then these sheet piles give
protection to the main structure of the Barrage.
The intermediate sheet piles also help lengthening the
seepage path and to reduce uplift the pressure.
c) D/S Sheet Piles
D/S sheet piles are placed at the end of the d/s concrete
floor and their main function is to check the exit gradient.
Their depth should be greater than the maximum possible
scour.

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iii. Inverted Filter

An inverted filter is provided between the d/s sheet piles

and the flexible protection. It would typically consist of 6
fine sand, 9 coarse and 9gravel. The filter material may
vary with the size of the particles forming the river bed.

It is protected by placing over it a concrete block of

sufficient weight and size (say 4 ft x 2.75 ft x 4 ft as used in
the Kalabagh barrage).

Slits (jhiries) are left between the blocks to allow the water
to escape. The slits are filled with sand.

Its primary function is to check the escape of fine soil

particles in the seepage water. In case of scour, it provides
adequate cover for the d/s sheet piles against the
steepening of the exit gradient.

The length of the filter should be 2 x D/s depth

of the sheet piles.

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Inverted Filter

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iv. Flexible Apron

A flexible apron is placed D/S of the filter and consists of

boulders large enough not to be washed away by the
highest likely water velocity.
The protection provided is such as to cover 1.5 x depth of
scour on the U/s side and 1.5 to 2 x depth of scour on the
D/S side at a slope of 3:1. figure below;

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v.

Undersluice

A number of Bays at the extreme ends of the Barrage,

adjacent to the canal regulator will have a Lower Crest Level
than the rest of the Bays.

The main function is i) to draw water by the formation of a

deep channel in low river flow and, ii) to control the flow of
silt into the canal by reducing the water velocity by the
formation of deep channel in front of the canal.

Accumulated silt can be washed away easily by opening the

undersluice gates to high velocity currents generated by
lower crest levels or a high differential head.

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vi. Divide Wall

The divide wall separates the undersluice bays from the

normal bays. Its length on the U/s side has to be sufficient
to keep the heavy turbulence at the nose of the wall, well
away from the U/s protection of the sluices.

Similarly, on the D/s side it should extend to cover the

Hydraulic jump and the resulting turbulence.

The main functions are;

a) To separate the undersluice from the normal bays to
avoid the heavy turbulence which would otherwise
occur due to a differential head in the two sections.
This helps by creating a still pond in front of the canal
off-take thereby allowing better silt control.
b) To generate a parallel flow and thereby avoid damage
to the flexible protection area of the undersluice
portion.

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vii. Fish Ladder

Fish ladder built along the divide wall, is a device designed

to allow fish to negotiate the artificial barrier in either
direction.

viii. Guide Banks

Guide Banks are earthen embankments with stone

pitching. The Guide Banks are designed to contain the
floods within the flood plain of the river. Both height and
length vary according to the back-water effect produced by
the barrage.

The Guide Banks are provided with appropriate apron as

well as stone pitching to defend the water current during
flood.

SURFACE FLOW
CONSIDERATION

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Surface Flow Consideration

Retrogression
Retrogression is a temporary phenomenon which occurs after the
construction of weir or barrage in a river flowing through alluvial
soil.
As a result of back-water effects and the increase in depths, the
velocity of the water decreases resulting in the deposition of the
sediment load.
Therefore, the water overflowing the Barrage having less quantity
of silt, picks up silt from the D/S bed. This results in the lowering
of the D/S river bed for a few miles.
This phenomenon is temporary because the river regime, i.e. its
slope, adapts to the new conditions of flow created by the Barrage
within a few years and then the water flowing over the weir has a
normal silt load.
Retrogression value is minimum for a flood discharge and
maximum for a low discharge. The values vary from 2 feet to 8.5
feet.

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Accretion
Accretion is the reverse of retrogression and normally occurs u/s
although may also occur d/s after the retrogression cycle is
completed.
Due to construction of a Barrage the water current is obstructed
resulting into lesser velocity on the U/S of Barrage. Due to this
reduction in velocity, the silt load in the flood water settle down
and ultimately deposited at the River Bed. This phenomena results
into Accretion.
There is no accurate method of calculating the values of
Retrogression and Accretion but the values that have been
recorded at various barrages may serve as guidelines.

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Designing of Diversion Weir (Surface Flow Consideration)

Step-I
Determined of Designed Discharge (Qm)
The first step is to decide on the Maximum Flood Discharge
likely to be anticipated during the design period. This
discharge is calculated on the basis of 50 or 100 years return
period.
Various Hydrological Methods for calculating the Maximum
Flood Discharge are available such as, rating curve, UH and;

Q = CIA
Where A = Area of Catchment (Km2)
I = The Average Rainfall Intensity (Cm/hr)
C = The Catchment constant depending upon the
catchment and rainfall characteristics.

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Step-II
Width of Weir
The width of the Barrage should be adequate enough to pass
the design discharge amicably for the given pond level.
Laceys Formula can serve as a guide line for fixing the length
of the Barrage

Pw = 2.67 Q
when

or P = 4.83 Q

(MKS)

Pw = Wetted Perimeter
Q = Maximum Flood Discharge

This is the clear water way required for passing the Design
Discharge. However, using the Laceys looseness coefficient
which varies 1 1.6.

The width between the abutment = Wa =Pw x 1.6

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Step-III
Profile of Barrage
The profile of the Barrage, i.e. the crest level, the D/S floor
level and the shape of the glacis should be fixed in such a way
that Hydraulic Jump for all conditions of flow and for all
conditions of river bed, i.e. normal bed levels, retrogressed
and accreted bed levels is formed on the D/S glacises.
The Hydraulic Jump is the most economical energy dissipater
and the profile should always be designed to cater for this
requirement.
Friction Blocks are also provided at the toe of the glacis for
efficient energy dissipation and minimizing the water current.

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Step-IV
Fixing of the Crest Level
The crest level is fixed by the requirements of the total head
required to pass the designed flood over the crest.
The pond level is taken as the High Flood Level. Since the width of
the river is known and the maximum depth can be calculated from
Laceys scour formula.
R = 0.9 (q2/f)1/3 or R = 1.35 (q2/f)1/3
The velocity of approach will be (q/R) and therefore the velocity
head (V2/2g) can be calculated. This would fix the U/S energy line.
Thus using the Discharge formula.
Q = C.L.H.3/2
Where Q = flood discharge in cusecs
L = length of the barrage crest
H = total energy V2/2g + H
C = 3.1 in FPS and 1.7 in MKS
Hence H can be determined. Subtract this H from the Total Energy
Line (TEL) which will fix the crest level.

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Example
Calculate the crest level for a gated diversion structure for the
following data;
Maximum discharge = 1000 m3/sec,
Length of the Barrage = 200 m,

High Flood Level = 100 m

f = 0.1

Solution
q = 1000/200 = 5 m3/sec/m
R = 1.35 [q2/f]1/3
R = 1.35 [52/0.1]1/3 = 8.4 m
V = 5/8.4 = 0.59 m/s
V2/2g = 0.192 m
Using Discharge Equation over a broad crested weir
Q = CLH3/2
1000 = 2.03 x 200 x H3/2
H = [1000/200x2.03]2/3 = 1.822 m
Crest Level of Barrage = 100 1.82 = 98.18 m

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Step-V
Hydraulic Jump Formation and Fixation of D/S Floor Level
The Hydraulic Jump should form on the D/S glacis. It is more stable
on sloping floors than on horizontal floors. Also the total length of the
D/S works will be less if the jump forms on the D/S glacis.
However, when the jump forms on the D/S glacis, there is the risk of
high submergence resulting in a weak jump and reduced energy
dissipation. Therefore the best position for the jump formation is at
toe of the glacis.
The basic equations for the Hydraulic Jump are used to locate the
position of the jump on the floor and to calculate the floor levels and
the D/S floor length, the D/S energy line must be fixed.

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A suitable value for the loss of head in the jump, HL which is afflux, is
assumed to be as 3 4 feet or 15 percent of known H.
With HL known, D/S Energy Line can be fixed. Using the basic
equation, Ef2, the total D/S energy level can be calculated in order to fix
the D/S floor level.

There are three ready-made methods based on equations which

can be used for Hydraulic Jump Calculations and fixation of D/S
floor level. These are;

a) Blench Curves
b) Crumps Curves
c) Conjugate Depth method

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Hydraulic Jump Formation and Fixation of D/S Flow Level

Blench curves

This curve is drown between the head loss (HL) v/s Ef2
(Total energy).

Calculate the U/S Discharge Intensity (qb) for various bed

condition i.e. normal flow, accurate and retrogressed.

Find out the U/S and D/S Energy Lines and then the head
loss (HL). = U/S TEL D/S TEL

For the calculated value of q and (HL) the value of

corresponding Ef2 is read from Blench Curve. Then
subtract this value from the D/S Energy Line. This will
fixed the D/S flow level.

The length of floor is taken as 4 5 of Ef2

Repeat this procedure for all the three above bed

conditions and take the correct value which will be fixed
the D/S Flow Level.

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Blench Curves

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Blench Curves

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Hydraulic Jump

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Rating Curves D/S of Barrage

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v)

Hydraulic jump formation and fixation of d/s floor level

Crump's Curve

This is the set of graphs between (HL)/dc and K+F/dc as

shown the figure.

First calculate discharge intensity (qb) for three bed

conditions.

Find out dc i.e. (q2/g)1/3

Also find out the U/S and D/S Energy Lines for one set of
Flow Condition and Calculate (HL)/dc

For known value of HL/dc read the corresponding value

K+F/dc = 0.5. now K and dc are known then only non-known
F value be calculated. The F is the point of intersection of
Hydraulic Jump with the D/S glacis.

Calculate the value of F for critical flow condition and

check weather the Hydraulic Jumps moves on the D/S
glacis.

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Crump's Curve

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Crumps Curves

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Step-VI
Inverted Filter
An inverted filter is provided between the D/S Sheet Piles and the
flexible protection. It would typically consist of 6 fine sand, 9
coarse and 9gravel. The filter material may vary with the size of
the particles forming the river bed.
It is protected by placing over it a concrete block of sufficient
weight and size (say 4 ft x 2.75 ft x 4 ft as used in the Kalabagh
barrage).
Slits (jhiries) are left between the blocks to allow the water to
escape. The slits are filled with sand.
Its primary function is to check the escape of fine soil particles in
the seepage water. In case of scour, it provides adequate cover for
the d/s sheet piles against the steepening of the exit gradient.

The length of the filter should be 2 x D/S depth of the

sheet piles.

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Inverted Filter

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Step-VII
Flexible Apron
The protection provided is such as to cover 1.5 x depth of scour
on the U/s side and 1.5 to 2 x depth of scour (d2 ) on the D/S side at
a slope of 3:1.
The apron in the launched position over the slope of 3:1, the apron
must have a thickness of 90-100 cm. knowing the inclined length
and the thickness, the total volume of the stone can be calculated
and hence the thickness in the horizontal position in a length of 2.5
d2 can be calculated.

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Design of Stone Apron

i) U/S Side
Length according to Lacy = 2.20 CH
H = Depth of water above the apron level.
C = Lacey's coefficient.
Thickness of Apron is kept 0.3 m over 0.3 0.5 concrete block.

ii) D/S Side

Length according to Lacy = 2.20 CH/13
H = Depth of water above the apron level.
C = Lacey's coefficient.
Thickness of Apron = 4/3 (H h)/ 1

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Step-VIII
Divide Wall
A divide wall shown in the enclosed figure is long wall made of stone
masonry or cement concrete placed perpendicular to the weir. It
separates overflow section of weir and under sluices. Divide wall
extends upstream little beyond the canal regulator and D/S upto
launching apron of the weir.
Functions
Divide wall separate the floor level of under sluices or pocket
floor of the weir. Floor level of pocket is normally a bit lower
than main weir floor.
Divide wall helps in forming a pocket of silt to approach the
tunnel of under sluices.
Divide wall serves as a support wall of the fish ladder.
Turbulent action of water and cross currents are prevented by
this long divide wall.

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Divide Wall

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Step-IX
Fish Ladder
Rivers are important source of fishes. Fishes moves upstream to
downstream in winter and downstream to upstream in monsoon.
For easy movement of fishes, fish ladder in irrigation project is
essential.
Enclosed figure is shown the plan and sectional views of fish
ladder. It is made of baffle walls in a zig-zag way so that velocity of
flow within the fish ladder cannot exceed 3 m/sec.
To control the flow, effective gates are fitted at upstream and
downstream ends of fish ladder.

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Fish Ladder

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Step-X
Scouring Sluices or Undersluices, Silt Pocket and Silt
Excluders
The above three components are employed for silt control at the
headworks. Divide wall creates a silt pocket. Silt excluder
consists of a number under tunnels resting of the floor of the
pocket. Top floor of the tunnels is at the level of sill of the Head
Regulator.
Various tunnels of different lengths are made as shown in
enclosed figure. The tunnel near the Head Regulator is of same
length of head regulator and successive tunnels towards the
divide wall are short. Velocity near the silt pocket is reduced, silts
are deposited at bottom, clear water remains above slab of silt
excluder and is allowed to enter the canal.
The deposited silt laden water is disposed downstream through
tunnels and Undersluices. Grade and paned presented a silt
transport concept in tunnel type sediment excluder.

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Scouring Sluices or Undersluices, Silt Pocket and Silt

Excluders

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Step-XI
Guide Bund
Guide bund is shown in the enclosed figure. Guide banks are
constructed on both side of the Headworks to protect the
structures and guide the flow so as the confine it in a reasonable
width of the river. It was first designed by Bell and therefore, it is
also called Bell Bund.
It consists of a heavily built embankment in shape of bell mouth on
both sides. Enclosed figure shows the length proportion upstream
and D/S of the weir. If L is length of weir or waterway, Upstream
length portion is taken 1.25L to 1.5L and length of Downstream of
the weir is equal to 0.25L.
Angles made by bell mouths both at Upstream and Downstream
are also shown in enclosed figure.

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Components of Guide Banks are;

Upstream curved head
Downstream curved head
Shank portion which joins upstream and downstream curved
end.
Sloping apron
Launching apron
Pile Protection

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Guide Bund

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Step-XII
Marginal Embankment
These are earthen embankments constructed parallel to river bank.
It starts upstream from the head of the guide bank as shown in the
enclosed figure. It serves the purposes of;
i)

Preventing flood water from entering the surrounding area.

ii) It retains the extra water due to flood within a specified

section.
iii) It protects the important cropland upstream of the project from
flooding.
iv) Due to construction of weir an afflux of water upstream is
created and marginal embankments are always necessary to
confine this afflux well within the river.

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Guide / Marginal Bund

Plan and Sectional View of Guide Bank and Marginal Embankment

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Guide/ Marginal Bund (Thickness of Apron/ Stone Pitching)

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Step-XIII
Canal Head Regulator
Canal Head Regulator is the Hydraulic Structure constructed at the
head of the canal. It consists of a number of spans separated by piers
and operated by gates similar to Barrage. Plan and Sectional Views
shown in the enclosed figure.
Functions

To regulate the required supply by operating the gates between

piers.
To control the silt from entering canal by slightly raising its
floor from floor of under sluices, i.e. a silt.
To prevent flood water from entering the canal by shutting the
gates to the HFL.
A roadway may be provided at the top.

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Canal Head Regulator

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Canal Head Regulator

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Step-XIV
Silt Ejector (or Extractor)
The enclosed figure shows the position of silt ejector. Although silt
excluder at the headworks excludes the silt, yet a portion of silt
enters the canal with water above the sill. The removal of which is
still necessary.
Therefore, the device silt ejector or extractor is provided in the
main canal few metres downstream of head regulator. The device
is a curative measure.
It consists of a horizontal diaphram placed slightly above the canal
bed. Canal bed there is slightly depressed and curved walls as
shown enclosed figure are constructed to have tunnels to dispose
of the extra silt.
Velocity decrease and silt deposited below the diaphram and this
deposited silt is carried to river downstream or to a low
depression.

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Silt Ejector (or Extractor)

SUB SURFACE
FLOW
CONSIDERATION

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Bligh Creep Theory

Bligh in his theory advocated that the design of impervious
floor is directly dependent on the path of percolation. He
assumed that Hydraulic slope or gradient is constant
throughout the impervious length of the apron.
He further assumed that percolating water creeps along the
contact of base profile of the weir and subsoil and thus, head
or energy is lost.
This loss of head is proportional to length of travel of creeping
water. Bligh called this length as creep length.
This creep length is the sum of horizontal as well as vertical
length of creep. He asserted that unless the cutoff walls or
sheet piles extend upto the impervious subsoil strata,
percolation cannot be stopped. The cutoff walls, sheet piles
when provided, can only increase the path of percolation to
reduce the hydraulic gradient.

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Bligh Creep Theory
Considering the enclosed figure-a, the creep length L
according to Bligh is L = l and for the figure-b with two sheet
piles of depth d1 and d2 the creep length is
L = 2d1 + l +2d2
It indicates that vertical cutoff has a weight of two and
horizontal floor has one. If H is total loss of head, loss of head
per unit length of the creep (c) is now;
c=

H
=H
2d1 + l + 2d2
L

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Sub Surface Flow

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Design Criteria
Bligh gave two design Criteria

(Figure-ii)

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Sub Surface Flow (Blighs Creep Theory)

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Sub Surface Flow (Blighs Creep Theory)

Figure-ii

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Sub Surface Flow

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Example
The following figure shows the section of a weir on permeable
foundation. Calculate the average Hydraulic gradient. Also calculate
uplift pressures and floor thickness at points A and B. Assume
specific gravity of floor material to be 2.65. Use Bligh Creep Theory.

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Solution:-

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Solution

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Subsoil Flow Considerations

Lanes Weighted Creep Theory
According to this theory, greater weight should be given to
vertical cut-off than to horizontal floors. The reasons are;
a)
b)
c)
d)

In practice the contact between the vertical and steeply

sloping surface is likely to be closer than along horizontal or
slightly sloping surfaces.
The soil beneath the structure may settle and leave empty
spaces which will be aggravated by piping. With vertical
surfaces the void will be filled due to earth pressure.
Vertical cut-off are more effective against horizontal
stratification, and check the free flow through the layers of
low permeability.
The results of potential theory described later also indicate
that even in homogenous soils, resistance against failure by
piping depends to much greater degree on the vertical
elements of the foundation profiles than on the horizontal
flooring.

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Lanes Weighted Creep Theory

Lane analyzed more than 200 dams all over the world and from his
analysis, he presented his weighted creep theory in 1932. He
proposed a weight of three for vertical creep and one for horizontal
creep. Considering the figure below, the creep length in Lane
Theory, becomes.

L = 3d1 + l +3d2
Although his theory is a modification over Blighs Theory, it is still
empirical. There is no rational basis to be used for design.

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Lanes Weighted Creep Theory

To ensure safety against piping the average Hydraulic gradient H/
Lw must not exceed 1/C the values of C are as given below;
Comparison for adopted value of C both for Lane and Lacys
theory is shown as below;Material

Cj (Lanes
Values)

C (Blighs
Values)

Very fine sand and silt

8.5

18

Fine sand

7.0

15

Coarse sand

5.7

12

Gravel and sand

3.5 to 3

Boulders gravel and

sand

2.5 to 3

4 to 6

Clayey soils

3.0 to 1.6

--

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Khoslas Theory

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Khoslas Theory

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Piping

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Khoslas Theory (Theory of FlowNet)

The streamlines represent the paths along which the water flows.
Every particle entering the soil at given point upstream traces out
its own path representing a streamline. The first streamline follows
bottom of the floor.
Equipotential lines represent the lines of equal pressure head and
both the lines intersects each other orthogonally and thus, they
form curvilinear square called field. The flow net shown in the
figure below is for a simple weir base profile.
Khosla presented a mathematical solution for the following simple
cases by breaking composite weir profile of given figure into the
following simple profiles shown figures.

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Khoslas Theory

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Khoslas Theory

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Subsoil HGL and Piping

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Percolation below Weirs on Sand

Critical Exit Gradient and Safe

Exit Gradient.

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Khoslas Method of Indepndent Variables

Figure 6.10

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Khoslas Theory
For finding pressure at key points E, D, and C, i.e. the points of
contact of the pile with floor and bottom of pile in the given figure
(a), (b), (c) and bottom corner points D1 and D of the given figure
(d).
Khosla developed independent curves as shown in the enclosed
figure for calculation of uplift pressures for the following
situations.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Figure-I shows a relationship between uplift pressure and 1/.

The Khoslas curve is used for calculation of D, E and D
for the piles and the ends.
Figure-II is used for calculation of Uplift pressure for the
intermediate sheet piles.
Figure-III is used for calculation of Exist Gradient.

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Khoslas Theory

(Figure-I)

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Khoslas Theory

(Figure-II)

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Khoslas Curve

(Figure-II)

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Khoslas Theory

(Figure-III)

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Calculation of pressures on Khoslas Theory

= b/d
b = Total Length
d = Depth of D/S Sheet
pile

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Khoslas Theory
Methods of Reading Khoslas Curve

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Khoslas Theory

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Khoslas Theory

Figure 6.10

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Khoslas Method of Independent Variables (Corrections)

Estimations of pressure at key points are made by breaking the
composite profile into four parts [Figures 6.10 (a), (b), (c) and (d)].
In actual practice, weir may have number of piles and its thickness.
Khosla solved this actual problem by an empirical method known
as method of independent variables. He applied the corrections of
floor and mutual interference of piles to the calculated values C,
D and E etc.
The correction due to, floor thickness, slope, interference of piles
is applied to the calculated values and net uplift pressures at these
control points is calculated to determine the floor thickness at
various points of the floor length.

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A) Correction for Thickness of the Floor

Let t, t1 and t2 be the thickness of the weir floor at upstream,
intermediate and downstream of the floor respectively and
corresponding depths of piles are d, d1 and d2 as shown in the
enclosed figure.
The figure shows the pressure at key points assuming negligible
floor thickness. Hence percentage pressure determined by the
Khoslas equations or curves shall pertain to the top level of the
floor while junction of the piles is at the bottom points E 1 and C1 of
the floor.
The pressure at E1 and C1 are determined by assuming straight line
or linear variation between the point D and the points E and C.

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Correction for Thickness of the Floor

Figure 24.22

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Correction for Thickness of the Floor

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Correction for Thickness of the Floor

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B) Correction for Mutual Interference of Piles

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Correction for Mutual Interference of Piles (Figure-V)

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C) Correction for Slope

Figure-V

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Correction for Slope

Correction of slope of the floor has also been recommended by
Khosla. The following table gives the recommended slope
correction;

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Correction for Slope

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Khoslas Method for Calculation of Depth of D/S Pile

As already discussed, Exit Gradient expression is available
from potential theory. It is also shown there that in the case of
flush floors, the Exit Gradient value is theoretically infinity
without a D/S Sheet Pile.
According to Khosla it is the D/S sheet pile which controls the
Exit Gradient value. Hence in Khoslas method the entire floor
and D/S Pile is taken as the elementary profile for the
computation of the Exit Gradient. For this case an analytical
solution is available.
Exit Gradient = H
d

where = 1+ 1+ 2
2
and
= b/d
where b = Total Floor Length (L)
d = Depth of D/S Sheet pile (d)
H = Head across
The limiting value of Exit Gradient will fix the D/S Sheet Pile.

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Example-I
Calculate the safe exist gradient with the following data;
Depth of end sheet pile
=7m
Seepage Head
=4m
Length of the impervious floor = b = 50 m
= b/d = 50/7 = 7.14
For
= 7.14
1/ = 0.165
Hydraulic gradient GE = H/d 1/ = 4/7 x 0.165 = 0.094 = 1/10.6
Since the hydraulic gradient is flatter than the permissible value of 1/7
the section is safe against piping

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Alternative Solution
For

= b/d = 50/7 = 7.14

= 7.14
= 1 + 1 + 2
2
= 1 + 1 + (7.14)2
2
= 1 + 1 + 50.97
= 51.97
2
= 1 + 7.209
= 8.209 = 4.10
2
2
= 1/ = 0.165
GE = H/d 1/
= 4/7x 0.156 = 0.089 = 1/11
which is within the safe limit.

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Example-II

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Example-III

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The above calculator values are either subtracted or added

for Calculation of Net pressure at the key points.

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Example-IV

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Calculation of up left
Pressures at the key
points by analytical
methods

Composite Profile of Floor : Khoslas Solution :

Specific Cases

Pile at some intermediate point

Fig 12.13

Pile at downstream

Refer Fig 12.12 a

Pile at the upstream end

Exit gradient

Permissible Exit Gradient

Solution
For Upstream Pile Line No.1

Example :
Determine the uplift pressures at the
key points by Analytical method for
the Fig show below .

Intermediate Pile Line No. (2)

b1
b2

From previous

For Downstream Pile line No. 3.

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Causes of Failure of Weirs and their Remedies

i) Piping

Water seeps under the base of the weirs founded on

permeable soils. When the flow lines emerges out at the D/S
end of the impervious floor of the weir, the Hydraulic
Gradient or the exit gradient may exceed a certain critical
value for the soil. In that case, the surface soil starts boiling
and is washed away by percolating water.
With the removal of the surface soil, there is further
concentration of flow lines resulting into the depression and
still more soil is removed.
This process of erosion thus progressively works backward
towards the upstream and results in the formation of a channel
or a pipe underneath the floor of the weir, causing its failure.

Remedies; Piping failures can be prevented by;

a)
b)

Providing sufficient length of the impervious floor so that

path of percolation is increased and the exit gradient is
decreased.
Providing pile at downstream ends.

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Causes of failure of weirs and their remedies

ii)

Rupture of Floor Due to Uplift

If the weight of floor is insufficient to resist the uplift pressure,

the floor may burst and effective length of impervious floor is
thereby reduced. The final failure, however, is due to the
reduction of the effective length with the consequent increase
in the exit gradient. Example of such failures are Khanki Weir
on Chenab.

Remedies; Failures due to rupture of floor may be prevented by;

a)

Providing impervious floor of sufficient length

b)

Providing impervious floor of appropriate thickness at

various points and

c)

Providing pile at the upstream end so that the uplift

pressure to the d/s is reduced.

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Causes of failure of weirs and their remedies

iii) Rupture of Floor Due to Suction Caused by Standing
Wave/ Hydraulic Jump

The standing wave or Hydraulic Jump formed at the D/S of the

weir causes suction which also acts in the direction of uplift
pressure. If the floor thickness is insufficient, it may fail by
rupture. Examples of such failures are Marala Weir on the
Chenab and Rasul Weir.

Remedies; Failures can be prevented by;

a)

Providing additional thickness of floor to counterbalance

the extra pressure due to the standing wave.

b)

Constructing the floor thickness in one concrete mass

instead of in masonry layers.

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Causes of failure of weirs and their remedies

iv) Scour on the Upstream and Downstream of the Weir

When the natural waterway of a river is contracted, the water

may scour the bed both at upstream and downstream of the
structure. The scour holes so formed may progress towards
the structure, causing its failure. Example of such failures are
Islam Weir and Tounsa.

Remedies; Such failures can be prevented by;

a)

Taking the piles at upstream and downstream ends of the

impervious floor, much below the calculated scour level.

b)

Providing suitable length and thickness of launching

aprons at u/s and d/s, so that stones of the aprons may
settle in the scour holes.

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B) Subsoil Flow Considerations

There are two considerations for the Design of Barrages founded
on porous soil. They are discussed in detail below;

i)

Uplift Pressure
o

This is defined as the residual pressure of the seeping

water acting vertically upward with the effect of trying to lift
up the body of The barrage.

Therefore in the case of gravity floors, the thickness of the

aprons or the glacis must be of greater weight than the
uplift pressure.

Hence it is very important to determination the exact uplift

pressure at each point under the Barrage profile.

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ii) Undermining
o

When the seepage velocity in the microscopic flow

channels in the subsoil under the structure is such that the
seepage force at the exit point becomes greater than the
submerged weight and friction of the soil. Very fine soil
particles become displaced. This can be observed as
muddy water emerging from the soil surface.

With this continuing process and a subsoil consisting of

fine particles surrounding larger particles, the removal of
the fine particles causes unequal settlement of the subsoil
and ultimately the collapse of the structure due to piping.

The river discharge over the weir further aggravates the

situation by washing away the loosened soil due to the
excessive exit gradient.

The problem consists therefore in controlling the seepage

force so that it cannot carry away the foundation material.

Computation of
Seepage
Discharge
167

Computation of Seepage Discharge

Computation of Rate of Seepage from Flow Net

Computation of Seepage Discharge

Computation of Seepage Discharge

Design of a Barrage
(Example)
171

Example on the design of a Barrage

Example
Example 11.6.
11.6.

172

Fixing the Crest Levels and Waterway

Crest Levels.

Waterway :

173

Assume the waterway as below

(a) Undersluice portion :
(b) Other barrage bays portion

174

175

176

Design of Undersulice Potion

(1) High flood condition

177

178

(2) Pond Level Flow Condition

179

180

181

Depth of Sheet Pile Lines from Scour Considerations

182

Total Floor length and Exit Gradient

183

Uplift
Pressures

184

Upstream Pile No. (1)

D/s Pile Line

Let us correct these pressures

185

186

187

Table 11.9

188

(a) Pre-jump profile:

Table 11.10. Pre-jump Profile Calculations

189

(b) Post jump Profile

Table 11.11. Post Jump Profile Calculation

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say 1.5 m in length.

say 16 m in length.

Design of Other Barrage Bays Portion

Here the crest level is 258.3 m.

Table 11.12. Other Barrage Bays Portion

IMPORTANT

Depth of Sheet Piles from Scour

Total Floor Length and Exit Gradient

Uplift Pressures
Upstream Pile No. (1)

Downstream Pile No. (1)

Let us correct these pressures

Table 11.13

Pre-jump Profile

Table 11.14. Pre-jump Profile

Calculations

Post Jump Profile.

Table 11.15 Post Jump Profile Calculations

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Canal Head Regulator Design

Example 11.7.

Solution.

Provide 6 bays of 7.5 m each giving a clear waterway of 45 m.

Hydraulic Calculations for Various Flow Conditions

Table 11.16

Depth of Sheet Piles from Scour Considerations

Total Floor Length and Exit Gradient

Adopt total floor length = 38 meters.

Uplift Pressures

Upstream pile No. 1.

Downstream Pile No. (2)

Table 11.17

Floor Thicknesses

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