DAMS

FORCES ON DAMS
TYPES OF DAMS
FAILURES AND SAFETY
REHABILITATION OF DAMS

GEOFFREY Y. COLIS
RAIZEL V. SARSADILLAS

Ambuklao Dam - Brgy. Ambuklao, Bokod, Benguet

Agusan Dam - Agusan

Angat Dam - Barangay San Lorenzo, Norzagaray, Bulacan

San Roque Dam - San Manuel and San Nicolas, Pangasinan

Wawa Dam - Rodriguez , Rizal

Binga Dam -Barrio

Binga, Barangay Tinongdan,
Itogon, Benguet

Pantabangan Dam - Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija

Caliraya Dam -Lumban

Laguna
-

Magat Dam - Magat River, Isabela

A dam is a barrier that impounds water.

Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining

water.

Dams are made of earth, rock, concrete or masonry.

The choice of material depends firstly upon the geology of

dam and secondly upon the cost of various alternatives

Concrete and
foundation

Earth dams can be placed on rock foundations or on firm

clays and other sound strata

DAMS

masonry

dams

require

hard

rock

Dams are classified on the basis of the type and materials

of construction, as gravity, arch, buttress, and
embankment.

Gravity dam depends on its weight for stability

Arch dam transmit most of the horizontal thrust of the

water behind them to the abutments by arch actions.

Buttress dams consists of sloping flat slabs supported

at intervals by buttresses.

Embankment dams constructed of earth and or rock

with provisions for controlling seepage by means of
impermeable core or upstream blanket.

Types of Dams

Curved dams may combine both gravity and arch

action to achieve stability

Long dams have concrete river section containing

spillway and sluice gates and earth or rock-fill wing dams
for the remainder of their length.
Whatever the type of dam used, the foundation material
below the dam must either be watertight or capable of
being made watertight by grouting. Watertight means
impermeable to such a degree that the loss of water is not
of any economic significance and does not endanger the
safety of the dam.

Combination of Types

The best type of dam for a given site depends on the

feasibility and cost.

Feasibility is governed
climate.

For example, to regions experiencing freezing and thawing,

arch and buttress dams with thin concrete sections are not
applicable because concrete spalls to extreme cold.

Cost of the types of dams depends mainly on the

availability of construction materials near the site and
accessibility of transportation facilities.

by topography, geology, and

Selection of Type

The height of dam is the difference in elevation between

the roadway, or spillway crest, and the lowest part of the
excavated foundation. But frequently, the height is taken
as the net height above the old river bed.

Height (h)

Height of Dam

A dam must be capable of resisting the forces that is acting

on it
The most important forces are:
Gravity (weight of dam)
Hydrostatic pressure
Uplift pressure
Ice pressure
Earthquake forces

These forces are transmitted to the foundation and

abutments of the dam which react with equal and opposite
force called the foundation reaction.

Forces on Gravity Dams

The weight of the dam is the product of its volume and

specific weight of the material. The line of action of this
force passes to the center of mass of the section.

Hydrostatic forces may act on both the upstream and

downstream faces of the dam. The horizontal component
of this force is the force on the vertical projection of the
face and per unit width of the dam. The line of action of
this force is h/3 above the base. The vertical component of
this force is equal to the weight of the water vertically
above the face and passes to the center of gravity of that
volume.

Uplift pressure are caused by the water that finds its way
between the dam and the foundation. It is assumed that
this varies from full hydrostatic pressure at the upstream
and full tailwater pressure at the downstream face. From
actual measurements, it is indicated that uplift force is less
than the theoretical value because of the internal pressure
distribution.

Ice pressures present to dams are caused by ice sheets

subjected to a temperature increase which expands and
exerts thrust against the upstream face. For dams located
to ice- forming regions, a load of 145kN/lin m is used.

Earthquake pressure results from earthquake shakes

where the dam rests. The force is equal to the product of
the mass of the dam and the acceleration caused by the
earthquake. In regions of known earthquake activity, a
value of 0.5 to 1.0g are assumed for acceleration.
In addition to the inertia forces acting on the dam,
earthquake causes oscillations which increases and
decreases hydrostatic pressure on the dam. This force acts
at distance of 4h/3 above the bottom of the reservoir.

W=wmV

Hh=wwA
Hv=wwV

UPSTREAM
Fi

1m

Hv

U=PA

Ev

Fi = 145kN/m
Eh = IFoa
Ev = 0.5Eh

Eh
W1

W3

Ew
h1

Ew = 0.555kwmh
DOWNSTREAM

W2

1m

Hv

Hh
h2
Hh
TOE

HEEL
B/3

B/3

B/3

U2
U1

Forces on Gravity Dams

A gravity dam must be statically and dynamically stable

and the design should consider the allowable limits for the
stresses of concrete.

To have a stable structure, the forces acting on the dam

should be rested or balanced by the rock and soil upon
which the dam rests.

Geologic investigations should be carefully conducted as

one of the first steps in the design of dams. This includes
inspection of rock outcrops and extensive underground
exploration by means if test holes, core drilling , and
geophysical methods. Some of the test holes should be
large enough for a person to enter and inspect thoroughly.

Design of Gravity Dams

A gravity dam may fail by sliding along the horizontal

plane, by rotation about the toe, or by failure of the
material.

Sliding will occur when the net horizontal force above any
plane in the dam exceeds the shear resistance developed
at that level. Sliding can be resisted by friction at the base
of the dam assisted by keying the base to solid bed rocks

Overturning and excessive compressive stress can be

avoided by selecting a cross section of proper size and
shape. Gravitational forces which produce moments
opposite the direction of the overturning moments or
simply the weight of the dam also resists the overturning
moment.

Structural Stability of Gravity

Dams

W=wmV

Hh=wwA
Hv=wwV

UPSTREAM
Fi

1m

Hv

U=PA

Ev

Fi = 145kN/m
Eh = IFoa
Ev = 0.5Eh

Eh
W1

W3

Ew
h1

Ew = 0.555kwmh
DOWNSTREAM

W2

1m

Hv

Hh
h2
Hh
TOE

HEEL

B/3

B/3

B/3

U2
U1

Before construction in the river channel can be started, the

streamflow must be diverted. In two stage construction,
the flow is diverted to one side of the channel by a
cofferdam while work proceeds to the other side.

After work on the lower portion of the dam is complete,

flow is diverted through outlets or even allowed to overtop
the completed portion while work proceeds on the other
half.

If geologic and topographic conditions are favorable, a

tunnel or diversion channel may be used to divert the
streamflow.

Construction of Gravity Dam

The work on the lower portion of the dam must be

scheduled during low flow periods to minimize the
diversion problem.

The foundation must be excavated to solid rock. Cavities or

faults in the underlying strata must be sealed with concrete
or grout.

A grout curtain is placed near the heel of the dam to

reduce seepage and uplift.

The conventional way of constructing a gravity dam is to

build it by pouring the concrete in blocks. The size of the
individual blocks depends on the dimensions of the dam.

The width is about 15m on large dams. Maximum height of

a single pour is usually about 1.5 m.

Sections are alternately poured to allow each section to

stand for several days before the next pour is done next to
it or on top of it.
Water is sprinkled to protect the section from drying.
Lateral surfaces of the section are painted with asphaltic
emulsion to prevent adherence and to form construction
joints.

Keyways are provided between sections to carry the shear

from one section to the adjacent and make the dam to act
as monolith. Metal water stops are also placed in vertical
construction joints near the upstream face to prevent
leakage.

Inspection galleries are formed as the concrete is placed.

This will serve as an access in the interior of the dam for
grouting operations, for maintenance of gates & valves, and
intercepting drains for water that seeps in the dam.

Cracks are product of the shrinkage and setting of

concrete from the raise in temperature to the cooling of
concrete. To avoid cracks, special low heat cement may
be used. Very lean mix is used for the interior of the dam two sacks of cement per cubic yard. Materials may also be
cooled before or during mixing. Further cooling is
accomplished by circulating cold water to pipes embedded
in the concrete.

Rollercompacted concrete (RCC) technology is based

on the concepts of concrete gravity and earthfill
embankment dams. The main advantage of RCC is its
economics. The cost is estimated about 60% of the cost of
conventionally built gravity dam.

RCC is a no slump, rather dry, mix of cement, fine and

coarse aggregate and fly ash. It can be conveyed or hauled
in trucks and/or conveyor belts and spread by bulldozers.
It is compacted by a heavy static or vibratory roller.

Fly ash serves to reduce the generation of heat thus less

shrinkage and cracking during curing. Aggregates are
limited to 6in. diameter and spread of 9 to 18-in. layers.

Roller - Compacted Concrete

Gravity Dams

The roller compacted concrete possesses cohesion that will give

the concrete a tensile strength of about 100psi or 690 kPa.

To control seepage, watertightness is developed by:

Constructing a wall using conventional formwork and normal
pouring
Using interlocking precast concrete
Forming a succession of concrete curbs

The upstream face of an RCC dam is usually made vertical

while the downstream are commonly set on slope between 0.6
and 0.8 horizontal to 1 vertical.

An arch dam is curved in plan carries the water load

horizontally to the abutments by arch action. The trust
developed makes it essential that the sidewalls of the
canyon be capable of resisting the arch forces.

Arch dams are thinner compared to gravity dams. Thus,

lesser construction materials will be needed and much
suitable for mountainous areas where there is difficulty in
delivering materials.

Arch Dams

Salmon Creek Dam in Alaska

An arch dam is visualized as consisting of a series of

horizontal arches or a series of vertical cantilevers. The
horizontal component of the water load is resisted jointly
by arch and cantilever action.

The method used in designing the arch dam is by the trial

load method. Near the bottom of the dam, the load is
carried by the cantilever, while near the top, the arches
take the load.

Design and Types of Arch Dams

There are two main types of arch dams: constant center

(constant radius) and variable center (variable radius or
constant angle).

Constant-center usually has a vertical upstream face, but

some batter can be provided near the base. Intrados
curves are usually concentric with extrados curves. This
type are preferred for U-shaped canyons.

Variable-center is one with decreasing extrados radii

from top to bottom so that the included angle is nearly
constant. This type is used to V-shaped canyons.

The foundation of the arch dam must be stripped to solid

rock and abutments are stripped and excavated at right
angles to the line of thrust.

Seams and pockets in the foundation abutments are

grouted in the usual manner. Care is taken in mixing,
pouring and curing of concrete in order to secure adequate
resistance to seepage and weathering. A layer of mortar is
placed between lifts to ensure better bond.

Contraction joints are normally placed every 20m. Joints

are provided with water stops and keyways.

Construction of Arch Dams

Buttress dam consists of a sloping membrane that transmit the water

load to a series of buttresses at right angles. There are two important
types of buttress dam; flat slab and multiple arch.

Flat slab dam is supported by a series of reinforced concrete slabs

while multiple arch has a series of arches that permit wider spacing
of buttresses.

Buttress dams use 1/3 to of the concrete used in a gravity dam but
is not less expensive.

This type can be used on areas of weak foundations to support a

gravity dam.

Buttress Dams

Buttresses and an arch of the Roselend Dam in France

If foundation material is permeable, a

extending to rock is used.

cut off wall

The upstream face is usually sloped at about 45 and with

full reservoir, a large vertical component of hydrostatic
force is exerted on the dam. This stabilizes the dam
against sliding and overturning.

Buttress dams are often used if future increase in reservoir

capacity is expected. Increasing the height is done by
extending the buttresses and slabs.

There are savings in the cost of construction

powerhouses and water treatment plants.

for

Buttress dams are subjected to the same forces as

gravity and arch dams.

Ice pressures are not usually important because ice

sheets tend to slide up the dam.

Uplift pressures are sometimes neglected (except on mat

foundations) because they are relieved by the gaps
between the buttresses.

Forces on Buttress Dams

A feature of the flat-slab dam is its articulation, the slab

is not rigidly attached to the buttresses.

The joint between the slab and buttress is filled with

asphaltic putty or some flexible joint compound.

Buttresses are usually hunched where they join the slab.

Flat-Slab and Buttress Dams

The slab is assumed to consist of a series of parallel beams that

act independently which is designed as a simply supported beam.

The buttresses are assumed to be a system of independent

columns. The load is a combination of structure and water load.

After a trial design of slab and buttresses, the foundation

pressures are determined to calculate the buttress footings

If the base of the buttresses will not give an adequate bearing

area, spread or mat footing is used.

The final step is to determine the stability against sliding and

overturning. If the factors of safety are not sufficient, the slope of
the upstream face may be flattened.

Design of Flat-Slab and Buttress

Dams

This type of Buttress Dam is more rigid than flat-slab type

and requires a better foundation

The central angle is usually from 150 to 180 degrees

A central angle of 180 eliminates horizontal thrusts

between arches and simplifies the equation.

The design for this type is similar to that of a single arch

dam.

This design is more economical for high dams

Multiple Arch Dams

The excavation for the cut-off wall

foundation are the first things done

and

suitable

Care is taken in the construction of forms, handling of

concrete and placing of reinforcing steel in order to develop
full strength and water tightness.

Keyways are required in all construction joints

Since buttress dams require less concrete than gravity

dams, less time will be needed and problems in water
diversion will be simplified

Construction of Buttress Dam

THANK YOU SO MUCH!!!