STAINLESS STEEL

Seminar by
DHANYA MENON M

CONTENTS
BRIEF HISTORY
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ALLOYS
CARBON STEELS
STAINLESS STEELS
SOLDERING
WELDING

HISTORY
It was discovered accidentally during
the early part of the first world war in U.K.
by the Sheffield Metallurgist Harry Brearly,
of the Brown Firth Research Lab , who
noticed that a discarded steel sample was
not rusting Result was a chrome alloy
steel. (Dated-4th June, 1912).
Two months later stainless steel was
cast for first time in August 20, 1912.

Stainless steel entered dentistry in 1919,

introduced at Krupps Dental Polyclinic in
Germany by F. Hauptmeyer, who first used
it to make a prosthesis and called it Wipla
(Wie Platin; in German, like Platinum).
Becket of U.S., Strauss and Edward
Maurer of Germany also shared the
development of the material between
1903-1921.

Application of stainless steel to the

fabrication of appliances was credited to a
Belgian Lucien de Coster.
Research study related to metallurgy
with particular references to orthodontic
applications was done by the metallurgist
R.M.Williams.
Angle used it in his last year (1930) as
ligature wires. By 1937, the value of
stainless steel as an orthodontic material

Terminology

Stress and Strain : When an external force acts

upon a solid body, a reaction force results within the
body that is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction to the external force (Load).This internal
force divided by the area over which it acts within
the body is the
resultant stress.(Psi, Mpa)

And the deformation is

called strain.(in/in,cm/cm)

Strain may be either plastic or elastic or a

combination of the two. Elastic strain is
reversible and disappears when the force is
removed.
Whereas
plastic
strain
is
irreversible and represents permanent
deformation of the material that never
recovers when force is removed.

Types of stresses and strains: Stress can

be defined according to its direction and
magnitude.
By means of their directions stresses are :
(i)Tensile stress: It is carried by a load
that tends to stretch/elongate a body. It is
always accompanied by tensile strain.

(ii)Compressive stress : If a body is placed

under a load that tends to compress or
shorten it, internal resistance to such a load
is called compressive stress. It is always
accompanied by compressive strain.
In both the above stresses, forces are
applied at right angle to the area over which
they act.

(iii)Shear stress : Stress that tends to

result from a twisting motion or sliding of
one portion of a body over another.
Shear stresses result from force that tend
to act parallel to surface of objects.

Elastic limit (Psi, Mpa)

If small tensile stresses are induced in a

wire,the wire will return to its original length
when the load is removed. If the load is
increased progressively in small increments
and then released after each increase in
stress , a stress value will be reached at
which the wire does not return to its original
length after it is unloaded. At this point wire
has been stressed beyond elastic limit.

Proportional limit (PL) (Psi, Mpa)

May be defined as greatest stress that
may be produced in a material such that
the stress is directly proportional to strain.

To determine the yield strength of a

material at a particular offset of .1% a line
drawn parallel to the straight line region
starting at a value of .001 or 0.1% of the
plastic strain along the straight axis and is
extended until it intersects the stress strain
curve. The stress corresponding to this point
is the yield strength.

Yield strength (YS) (Psi, Mpa)

Is the stress required to produce the
particular offset chosen or a point at which a
deformation of .1% is measured.

Modulus of elasticity, Youngs modulus or

elastic modulus (E) (Psi, Mpa)
This describes the relative stiffness or rigidity
of a material which is measured by the slope of
the
elastic region of the stress strain diagram.

 It is the ratio of stress to the strain.

It is a slope of stress/ strain curve.
If the slope is more horizontal- it is
springier.
If slope is more vertical- it is stiffer.
Wire with high MOE is difficult to bend.
Less the strain for a given stress,
greater will be
the MOE.

Flexibility
It is the property of elastic deformation
under loading. Maximum flexibility may be
defined as the strain that occurs when the
material is stressed to its proportional limit.

Resiliency
Can be defined as amount of energy absorbed by
a structure when it is stressed not to exceed its
proportional limit.(or)It can also be defined as
maximum amount of energy a material can absorb
without undergoing permanent deformation.

- It is the property of the material itself

and is not
related to the size or
form of the wire.
-It is the area under the stress-strain
curve at the
given maximum stress required to
fracture a
structure.
-It is the greatest force that can be

Strength, ultimate tensile strength, shear

strength, compressive strength or flexural
strength

Is the maximum stress required to fracture a

structure (can be tensile, compressive or shear,
depending upon the predominant type of stress
present).

 Toughness

It is defined as the amount of elastic and plastic

deformation energy required to fracture a
material and it is a measure of the resistance to
fracture.

Can be defined as energy required to fracture a

material.
Is related to the total area within the elastic and
plastic regions.

Brittleness
Opposite to toughness, brittle material is apt to
fracture at or near to proportional limit.
Can be defined as the relative inability to of a
material to sustain plastic deformation
before
fracture of a material takes place.

Stiffness /Load Deflection Rate

- Is the measure of resistance to
deformation.
- It is measure of force required to
bend or otherwise deform the
material over a definite distance.
-Other things being equal, a stiffer
wire can store proportionately more
force.

Working Range
Is the measure of how far a wire or
material
can
be
deformed
without
exceeding the elastic limit.
This helps in knowing how far a tooth can
be moved with single adjustment.

 Malleability

Is the ability of a material to withstand

permanent deformation without rupture
under compression as in hammering or
rolling.
It is not as dependent upon strength as
is ductility.

Ductility
Is the ability of a material to withstand
permanent deformation under tensile load without
rupture.

It is dependent on
tensile strength.

In general, ductility decreases with increase in

temp, whereas malleability increases with increase
temp.

Poissons ratio

During axial loading in tension or

compression there is simultaneous axial and
lateral strain. Under tensile loading, there is
a reduction in cross section. Within the
elastic range, the ratio of lateral to axial
strain is called poissons ratio. In tensile
loading the poissons ratio indicates that
reduction in cross section is proportional to
the
elongation
during
the
elastic
deformation. The reduction in cross section

Hardness
It is defined as resistance to indentation.
Factors influencing
material are its :

the

hardness

Proportional limit
Ductility
Malleability
Resistance to abrasion

of

The different types of hardness tests are :

MACRO HARDNESS TESTS

Brinell test wherein a hardened
steel ball is pressed under a
specified load into the
polished surface of the material.
The load is divided by the area of the projected
surface of the indentation and the quotient is
referred to as brinell hardness number (BHN). Thus
for a given load the smaller the indentation the
larger is the number and harder is the material.

In Rockwell hardness test (RHN), it is

similar to Brinell except for the use of a steel
ball , a conical diamond point is used.

MICRO HARDNESS TESTS

Knoop hardness test employs a
Diamond indenting tool that is
cut in the geometric configuration.
The impression is rhombic in outline
and the length of the largest diagonal is measured.
The
projected area is divided into the load to give knoop
hardness
number (KHN).

Vickers hardness test is done using a

diamond in the shape of a square based
pyramid.

Phase

A homogeneous portion of a material

system that has uniform physical and
chemical characteristics.
Phase Transformation

A change in the number and or character

of phases that constitute the microstructure
of an alloy by a change in crystalline
structure.

Pseudoelasticity

Is
the
mechanical
analogue
of
thermoelasticity in which at constant
temperature, the austenitic to martensitic
phase transformation occurs with increasing
applied force.
As the force is subsequently removed, the
reverse phase transformation occurs.

Thermoelasticity

The thermal analogue of pseudo elasticity

in
which
the
martensitic
phase
transformation occurs from austenitic as the
temperature is decreased.
This can be reversed by increasing the
temperature to its original value.

Transition temperature Range

That temperature range over which the

alloy structure changes from the martensitic
to the austenitic phase is known as the
transition temperature range.

Spring Back
Also referred to as maximum elastic
deflection, maximum flexibility, range of
activation, range of deflection (or) working
range.

Higher springback values provide the

ability to apply large activation with a
resultant increase in working time of the
appliance.
This is turn implies that fewer arch wires
have to be changed or adjustments will be
required.
Springback is also a measure of how far a
wire can be deflected without causing

Formability

High formability provides the ability to

bend a wire into desired configuration such
as loops, coils ,stops etc without fracturing
the wire.
The property relates to the area under the
graph between the yield point and the
failure point.

Biocompatibility
And
Environmental
Stability

Biocompatibility includes resistance to

corrosion and tissue tolerance to elements in
the wire.
Environmental
stability
ensures
the
maintenance of desired properties of the
wire for extended period of time after
manufacture.
Both in turn, ensure a predictable
behaviour of the wire when in use.

Joinability
The ability to attach auxiliaries to
orthodontic wires by welding or
soldering
to
provide
additional
advantage
when
incorporating
modifications to the appliance.

Friction

Space closure and canine retraction in

continuous arch wire technique involves a
relative motion of wire over bracket.
Excessive amount of bracket/wire friction
may result in loss of anchorage or binding
accompanied by little or no tooth movement.
The preferred wire material for moving a
tooth relative to the wire would be one which
produces the least amount of friction at the
bracket/wire interface.

Space Lattice

Can be defined as any arrangement of

atoms in space such that every atom is
situated similarly to every other atom. They
may be result of primary or secondary
bonds.

There are 14 possible lattice types and

forms but many of the metals used in
dentistry belong to cubic system ie the
atoms may crystalize in cubic arrangements.
Metals are made up of thousands of tiny
crystals and each crystal is known as grain.

Strain
hardening/Work
hardening/Cold
working

Deformation of space lattice of metals by

mechanical manipulation at room temperature is
called cold working and hardening of metal by cold
working is called strain hardening or work
hardening.
Surface hardness, strength, proportional limit of
metals are increased with strain hardening.

Whereas ductility and resistance to

corrosion are decreased but elastic modulus
is not changed appreciably.
Tensile strength increases but ductility
decreases
during
cold
working/work
hardening/strain hardening.

Heat Treatment
Process of subjecting a metal to a given
controlled
heat followed by controlled sudden or gradual
cooling
to develop desired qualities of metal.

2 types of heat treatment

Softening heat treatment

ANNEALING

hardening heat treatment

TEMPERING

A) Annealing
Effects associated with cold working ( eg strain
hardening, lowered ductility and distorted grains )
can
be reversed by simple heating the metal. This
process
is called annealing. The more severe the cold
working,
more rapidly
the comprises
effects can
be reversed
Annealing
in general
of three
stages: by
annealing.
1) Recovery
2) Recrystallization
3) Grain growth

RECOVERY
It is considered the stage at which the cold
work properties begin to disappear. There is
slight decrease in tensile strength and no
change in ductility.

RECRYSTALLIZATION
It occurs after recovery stage. A radical
change occurs microstructurally old grains
disappear completely and are replaced by a
new set of strain free grains. These grains
nucleate in the most severely cold worked
regions in the metal usually grain boundaries
or where lattice is most deformed. On
completion the metal essentially attains its
original soft and ductile condition.

GRAIN GROWTH
The recrystallized structure has a certain
average grain size depending on the number of
nuclei. The more severe the cold working the
greater the number of such nuclei. Thus the grain
size for the completely recrystallized material can
range from fine to fairly coarse. If fine grain
structure is further annealed the grain begins to
grow an in effect large grains consume the smaller
grains. The process continues till a course grain
structure is produced.

Stress relief annealing

Is the heat treatment to relieve stress
without affecting the physical properties. The
wire can be given new shape and can resist
deformation to a greater degree.

Procedure

Heat upto 260C for 20 min or 399C for

10 min
3-4V of Electric current is passed between
two terminal blocks (Usually 2.5V is required
but for springs or coils having greater length
and increase in voltage greater than 2.5V is
needed)
Colour change to a medium
straw

If heat exceeds 500C weld decay takes

place which can be avoided by adding
columbium. If complete ductility of wire is
required it should be heated more than
950C. this causes recrystallization thus
giving it a equivaxed structure but at the
same time destroying the fibrous structure
of the wire on which the springiness
depends.

B) Tempering
Stainless steel cannot be hardened like
carbon steel by quenching or by any other
heat treatment because of stability of
austenitic steel.
Can be hardened only by cold working.

Polymorphism

A few metals and many compounds

crystallize into more than one structure. If
the changed structure is reversible as in
iron, it is called allotropy. At higher temp
iron unit cells belong to F C C system
(austenite) whereas at lower ones it has BC
C ( ferrite)

ALLOYS
An alloy is defined as a combination of
two or more metals, which are (generally)
soluble in molten condition.

Can also be defined for dental purposes

as a metal containing two or more elements,
at least one of which is a metal and all of
which are mutually soluble in the molten
state.

Various properties of alloys

Not different from those of pure metals

Most alloys solidify over at a temperature range
rather
than a single temperature with in this range a two
phase solid and liquid system exists.
The presence of more than one metal can bring
about
certain reactions in the solid state that cannot
occur in
presence of a single metal.

Classification

1)According to the use (such as metal inlays,

crowns and bridges, metal ceramic restoration
RPD, implants)
2)Major element (Au, Ag, Pd, Ti, Ni)

3)Nobility (high noble, noble and predominantly

metal)
4)Principle three elements (Au-Pd-Ag, Fe-Ni-Cr,
Pd-Ag-Sn)

5) The dominant phase ( isomorphous single phase),

eg. Eutectic, peritectic alloys, intermetallic compo
and combinations

6) According to number of elements like binary, terti

quaternary etc

Eutectic alloy
This is an alloy having a fusion
temperature, which is lower than that of its
components. When solidifying, the
components of alloy separate out, even
though they were soluble in molten state.
Generally these alloys are brittle and have a
very low resistance to tarnish and corrosion.
Are mainly used in solders

Hypo Eutectic alloys

This is a eutectic alloy having a
composition of less than eutectic.

Hyper eutectic alloys

This is a eutectic alloy having a
composition of more than eutectic.
Peritectic alloys
Is an alloy which solidifies while an atomic
diffusion occurs, on slow cooling changes
into beta phase.

Solid solution alloys

Is an alloy in which atoms of the solute
were randomly distributed in space lattice on
the solvent.
Dental alloys are normally of this type.

PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL
ORTHODONTIC ALLOY

Formability
Large elastic deflection for more constant
force for tooth movement
A high yield strength since it is directly
proportional
to
maximum
elastic
deflection.

Weld ability and soldering

Corrosion resistant
Stable in oral environment and
biocompatible
Cost effective
Easily available

CARBON STEEL

Steels are iron based alloys that contain

less than 1.2% carbon ( More than 2%
carbon containing alloys are called PIG
IRON). The different classes of steels evolve
from 3 possible lattice arrangements of iron.
Pure iron at room temperature has body
centred cubic (BCC) structure and is referred
to as FERRITE.
This phase is stable upto 912c.The
spaces between atoms in BCC structure are

At temperature between 912c and 1394c, the

stable form of iron is face centred cubic (FCC)
structure called AUSTENITE.

The interstices in FCC lattice are larger than

those of BCC structure. However the size of carbon
atom is such that the resulting lattice strain still
limits the maximum carbon solubility to 2.11wt%.

Austenitic form of iron is the stable form of

iron and is called GAMMA IRON or AUSTENITE after
the well known metallurgist, ROBERT AUSTEN.
Transformation of Austenite to BCT
structure called MARTENSITE is a highly distorted
and strained, resulting in an extremely hard, strong
and brittle alloy.
Formation of martensite is an important
strengthening mechanism for carbon steels.

The
process
of
decomposition
of
martensite to form ferrite and carbide
[cementite and pearlite] can be accelerated
by appropriate heat treatment to reduce the
hardness but it is counter-balanced by an
increase in toughness. Such a heat treatment
process is called TEMPERING.

STAINLESS STEEL

When the chromium (generally 12 to

30% )is added to steel, alloy is commonly
defined as stainless steel.
Elements other than iron, carbon and
chromium may also be present, resulting in
a wide variation of composition and
properties of stainless steel.

MODIFYING ELEMENTS AND THEIR

FUNCTION

Chromium is added to increase tarnish

and corrosion resistance. It also increases
hardness, tensile strength and proportional
limit.
Nickel strengthens the alloy and helps in
increasing the tarnish and corrosion
resistance.

Cobalt decreases the hardness

Manganese acts as scavenger and
increases the hardness during quenching.
Silicon acts as a deoxidizer and also as
scavenger
Titanium inhibits the precipitation of
chromium carbide.
So these elements are added to stainless
steel to modify the physical properties and
also to make the unstable phase stable at

STANDARDIZATION

All standard stainless steels are classified

and numbered for identification according to
standardized system set up for steels by
American Iron and steel Institute (AISI).
This system uses numbers from 300-502
for stainless steel number depends on
composition and physical properties
TYPE

ferritic
austenitic
martensitic

AISI NO.

400
302,304,316L
(300 series)
400

TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL

Basically the steels used in dentistry

are divided into 3 types (based on lattice
structure)
TYPE
(space
lattice)
Ferritic
(BCC)
Austenitic
(FCC)
Martensitic
(BCT)

chromiu
m
11.5-27
16.0-26
11.5-17

nickel
0
7-22
0-2.5

carbon
0.20max
0.25max
0.15-1.20

AISI

UNS

EXAMPL
E

Cr

Ni

M
n

Mo C

303

S-30300

Ormco
Diamond

1719

8-10

0.6 .15 0.2 1.0 .15

0

304L

S-30403

Advanced 1820
orthod

8-12

316L

S-31603

A Co
Stand
twins

1014

2.5 .03 0.0 1.0 .03

4
0

1618

Si

.03 0.0 1.0 .03

4
0

types

Approx. yield
strength
(kg/cm3)

Approx. tensile
Strength
(kg/cm3)

% elongation

Martensitic
- annealed
- heat treated

4600
9000-14000

7000
11000-21000

30
12

Austenitic
-annealed
-cold worked

2800
4000-10000

6700
7000-12000

70
50

FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS (400series)

Microstructure of these steels is similar to iron at

room temperature (BCC). The difference being that
in ferritic steel chromium is substituted for some iron
atoms in the unit cells.
The degree of substitution can go as high as 30%
in the presence of small amounts of other elements
(eg: Carbon, Nitrogen, Nickel)
Modern super ferrites contain 19-30% chromium
and are used in several nickel free brackets.

Highly resistant to chlorides these alloys contain

small amounts of aluminium, molybdenum and very
little carbon.
Ferritic alloys provide good corrosion resistance at
lower cost, provided high strength is not required.
Since temperature change induces no phase
change in
the solid state, the alloy is not hardenable by heat
treatment.
Ferritic stainless
hardenable.

steels

are

not

readily

work

This series of alloys find little application in

dentistry.

MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS (400series)

They can be heat treated in the same manner as
plain carbon steels with similar results.
Because of their high strength and hardness
martensitic stainless steels are used for surgical
&
cutting instruments.
Corrosion resistance of martensitic stainless steel
is
less than that of other types and is reduced
following
hardening heat treatment.
As usual, when the strength and hardness
increase
ductility decreases. It may go as low as 2%

AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

(300series)
These are most corrosion resistant of
stainless steels.
AISI 302 is the basic type containing
18% Cr, 8% Ni and .15% carbon.
Type 304 has similar composition, chief
difference
being that the carbon content is limited to

Both 302 and 304 may be designated as 18/8

stainless
steel and are most commonly used in orthodontics
in
form of bands and wires.
Type 316 L (.03% max. carbon) is the type
ordinarily
employed for implants
The 316 & 316 L types have been recently
introduced
and 316 differs in that it contains 2% more Nickel
in

Generally, austenitic stainless steel is preferable

to the ferritic alloy because of :
Greater ductility & ability to undergo more
could
work without breakage.
Substantial strengthening during cold working.
Greater ease of welding.
Ability to fairly readily overcome senstization.
Less critical grain growth.
Comparative ease in formation.

DUPLEX STEELS
Consists of an assembly of both austenite and
ferrite grains.
Along with Fe these steels have Mo and Cr and low
amounts of Ni.
As opposed to austenitic ones these steels are
attracted to magnets.
Duplex structure (+') results in improvement in
ductility and toughness compared to ferritic ones,
while the yield strength is more than twice that of
similar austenitic steels.

High corrosion resistant

When improperly heat treated, these steels
have a tendency to form a brittle phase that
diminishes their corrosion resistance.
Combining a lower Ni content with superior
mechanical properties it is used for
manufacture of one piece brackets (eg.
Bioline low nickel by CEOSA, madrid)

PRECIPITATION-HARDENABLE (PH)
STEELS
PH steels can be hardened by heat
treatment the process being an aging
treatment which promotes the precipitation
of some elements which are added.
High tensile strength PH stainless steel is
widely used for mini brackets
Ormco uses PH to make its edgelock
brackets

COBALT CONTAINING ALLOYS

Commonly used in orthodontics e.g. Elgiloy and
Flexiloy
Some contain large amounts of Ni others
however are Ni free
Ni free steels are used to make arch wires
Generally corrosion resistant
To manufacture attachments such as Prestige
(pyramid orthodontics), NU Edge LN ( TP
orthodontics) and Elite opti- mim (ortho
organisers).

MANGANESE CONTAINING STEELS

Known as austenizing element
Manganese acts by interstitially solubilizing
the really austenitizing element, nitrogen
thus replacing Ni.
Unfortunately high proportions of Mn
increases the alloys susceptibility to
corrosion.

ACCORDING
TO

E.C.
COOMBE

Soft

hard

Hard

C.P. ADAMS
Very soft/
fully annealed
Hard
High tensile/super
hard/hard spring

SENSITIZATION, WELD DECAY &

STABILIZATION
At temperature in excess of 500c (exact
temperature depends upon its carbon content)
[ Range 400c -900C according to skinners]
chromium and carbon react to form chromium
carbide (Cr3 c), which precipitate at the grain
boundaries causing brittle behaviour. Also the
corrosion resistance decreases due to depletion of
the central regions of the crystals off chromium,
which has migrated to the boundaries to form the
carbides. This process in known as sensitization or
weld decay.

SOFT STAINLESS STEEL WIRE

Thoroughly annealed to release any work
hardening
0.009, 0.010, 0.011, 0.012, 0.014
Enables ligature to be tied around the arch
wire
Maintains groups of teeth together
Because of its low yield strength there
may be some extension in the length during
its use and the wire should be stretched as
it is placed to reduce the amount of
lengthening.

Should be used to ligate NiTi wire to teeth

that are displaced from the line of the arch,
for rotation ties and to secure ties when full
expression of torquing arch wire is required
Replaced by elastic modules

Criteria for selection of a

wire/alloy

Load deflection rate required

appliance.
Magnitude
required.

of

force

and

proper
in

the

movements

Stiffness of the alloy its relative

formability.

AUSTRALIAN ARCHWIRES
In 1952, Dr. Begg in collaboration with an
Australian metallurgist Mr. A.J Wilcock, developed a
high tensile stainless steel wire that is heat treated
and cold drawn to yield its now familiar and
excellent clinical properties the A.J.
It was made thin enough to distribute force at an
optimal level for tooth movement over a
considerable period of time, over long distance and
with minimal loss of force intensity while doing so.
The diameter of the wire initially produced was
progressively decreased from .018 to .014.

There are 6 types of Australian arch wires

Regular grade (white label)

lowest grade
easiest to bend
used for practice bending and forming auxillaries.
Regular plus (green label)
Relatively easy to form, yet more resilient than
regular grade.
Used for auxillaries and arch wires when more
pressure and resistance to deformation are
desired.

Special grade (black label)

highly resilient yet can be formed into shape with
little danger of breakage
Special plus grade (orange label)
Hardness and resiliency of .016 wire is excellent
for
supporting anchorage and reducing deep
overbites.
Must be bent with care.
Routinely used by experienced operators.

.014 Premium plus

In addition to the routine use of .014 wire as
up righting and torquing springs, these wires have
been suggested for use in high angle cases as a
means to prevent molar extrusion.

.016 Premium plus

Is claimed to undergo less distortion in the mouth
compared to older grades.
Is actually suitable for mesiofacial types.

.018 Premium plus

This wire has two good uses:
Where the VTO indicates that the upper incisors
need intrusion form the outset. This is infact
the
most common requirement when the case
requires
reduction of a severe overbite before cessation
of
growth.
It is usually dictated by lip line considerations
since
the lower lip grows up on the average 4mm
relative
to the symphysis during the pubertal growth
spurt.

.020 Premium
Claimed to be superior to .022 special plus for
maintains the arch form.
Is also very effective in correcting arch form.
Compared to .022 special plus, this is equally
stiff
and yet more formable.

Ultra high tensile wires

Ultra high tensile wires of supreme grade (.008,
.009, .010, .011, .022) were used initially for
aligning in lingual orthodontics.
It has been shown that supreme grade wires have
similar flexibility values to -titanium and are
approximately three times more resilient..
Only Nitinol has a superior property in terms of
flexibility in comparison to the supreme grade wire
but
at the expense of good formability and at a
purchase
price many time that of stainless steel.

.008 / .009 Supreme (A.J. Wilcock Jr. 1984)

Is an ultra high tensile S.S. fine round wire, the
supreme grade.
Initially introduced in .010, was further reduced
to
.009 diameter.
May be used to form a boxed reciprocal torquing
mechanism to lip one tooth against the adjacent
tooth
torque wise.

.010 Supreme
May also be used to form reciprocal torquing
springs.
Wire is best indicated for incisally activated
mouse
traps. These result in a shortened duration of
stage III
treatment.
Gentle force developed with .010 mousetraps
are not
associated with root restoration as happens with

These wires are excellent for making minisprings.

Coil
size may be decreased with these wires. The
advantage of minisprings is that they can be
inserted
behind the stage III brass pins in the slot, rear to
stage
III
Archwire giving greater control and ease of
placement.
They are available as preformed.
Also they produce such light forces that they truly
realise Beggs concept of light differential forces.

.011 / .012 supreme

Mollenhauer states that this wire appears to be
strong
yet flexible for anterior teeth. He claims the wire
is
excellent for aligning second molars towards the
end
of stage III. This helps to establish good molar
contact at the end of treatment.
In the anterior section the .011 wire is tied
Piggyback
gingival to the main arch wire between central
incisors.

MULTI STRANDED OR BRAIDED

WIRES

Initial orthodontic leveling arch wires

require
great
working range to
accommodate the usualmalalignment of
bracket slots in the untreated malocclusion.
Low stiffness is advantageous so that
the force can be kept as gentle as possible.
High strength is desirable so that
normal masticatory forces will not render
the wire uselessthrough plastic deformation
of fracture.

Braided or twisted wires are able to sustain

large
elastic deflection in bendings.
Because of their low apparent modulus
bending these wires apply low forces for a
given deflection when compared with solid
stainless steel.

CO-AX WIRES
One of most efficient wires available for
edgewise or light wire technique to align
crowded or rotated
anterior teeth.
Has a central core wire for stability with
five outer
wires wrapped around for resilience and
flexibility.

Co-ax wires provide light

continuous forces over a longer
period and can be deflected to great
degree (without taking a set).
The tightly wound, smooth, bright
finish allows brackets to slide freely.

Mechanical properties of stainless stee

Modulus of elasticity 26 x 106 psi

Yield strength- 229 x 103 psi
Ultimate tensile strength 307 x 103 p
No. of 90 cold bends without fracture
for .017 x .025 wire = 5

Soldering

DEFINITION
Is a group of processes that join metals by
heating them to a suitable temperature below the
solidus of the substrate metals and applying a
filler metal having a liquidus not exceeding 450C
that melts and flows by capillary attraction
between the parts without appreciably affecting
the dimensions of the joined structure. (metals
handbook desk edition 1992)
Soldering is the process of joining metals by use
of filler material with a fusion temperature of less
than 450C.

Solidus
In a phase diagram, is the temperatures at which
metals of an alloy system become completely
solidified on cooling or start to melt on heating.
(metals handbook desk edition 1992)
Liquidus
In a equilibrium phase diagram, it is the
temperatures at which metals of an alloy system
begin to freeze on cooling or at which the metals
completely molten on heating.(metals handbook
desk edition 1992)

Brazing
The process of joining closely approximated solid
metal parts by heating them to a suitable
temperature below the solidus temperature`of the
parts and allowing a filler metal having a liquidus
temperature above 450C to melt and flow by
capillary attraction between the parts without
appreciably affecting the dimensions of the joined
structure. (metals handbook desk edition 1992)

It is the process of joining metals by using a filler

metal with a fusion temperature of more than 450
C

The soldering process involves the:

substrate or parent metal to be joined
soldering filler metal (solder)
a flux
a heat source

Substrate metal
Known as the basis metal, it is the original pure
metal
or alloy that is prepared for joining to another
substrate metal or alloy
Its composition determines its melting range
Also determines the oxide layer formed during the
procedure and the flux that must be used to
reduce the
oxide, inhibit further oxidation or facilitate its
removal.
Its composition also determines the wettability of
the
substrate by the molten solder alloy. The solder
chosen must wet the metal at as low a contact

Solder
Dental solders are alloys that are used as
intermediary
or a filler metal to join two or
more metallic parts.
Fusion temperature should be lower than
that of the parts to be joined. Rule of thumb
is that the flow temperature of the filler metal
should be 56C (100F) lower than the
solidus temperature of the substrate metal.
Free flowing and should adequately wet the
metal parts it unites so that good adhesion is
achieved.
Strength of the solder should be similar to
that of
metals being joined.
Should exhibit excellent tarnish and

COMPOSITION
Usually fineness of a solder is less than
that of the alloy being used.
Previously, solders were commonly
referred to by carat number, the number did
not describe the actual carat of solder but
rather the carat of the gold alloy on which
the solder was to be used.
In recent years, the degree of
fineness has been used to describe the
various solders. General rule is that the
fineness or actual carat of the solder should
be slightly less than the actual carat/fineness
of the parts being joined since the solder of
reduced fineness has a lower melting range

Gold solders
Contains gold (45-80%), silver (8-12%), copper (712%) with tin (2-3%) and zinc (2-4%)
Zinc and tin reduce the fusion temp of the solder
below the casting alloys. Also increase fluidity of
solder in molten state and improve the
mechanical
properties.
Copper is added to improve strength and lower
the
fusion temp and to make it amenable to age
hardening.

Silver in large proportion than copper

improves
wetting of gold solders. Also decreases the
fusion
temperature.
Nickel may be added instead of copper if a
white
alloy is desired.

Silver solders
Are essentially alloys of silver (46-60%),
copper (15
-30%) and zinc (15-20%) to which
elements such as
tin and indium may be added to lower
fusion
temperature and improve solder ability.

soft
Types of solders

hard
Soft solders
Include lead in having low m.p. Known as
plumbers solder.
Has low fusion range of about 260 c or less which
permits them to be applied by simple means such
as
by a hot soldering iron.
Soft solders lack corrosion resistance hence
impracticable for dental application.

Hard solders
Have much higher melting temperature
Also possess greater hardness and strength
properties
e.g dental gold and silver solders which
also possess
good and corrosion resistance.

Flux
flux means flow
purpose of flux is to remove any
oxide coating on the parent metal
surface when the filler metal is fluid
and ready to flow into place.

The most commonly used flux in

dentistry has the following
composition borax glass-55%, boric
acid- 35%, silica-10%

Anti flux
It prevents flow of solder and is used to
confine the
solder to the work area.
Graphite from a lead pencil is convenient
antiflux
however it is removed by oxidation at
higher
temperature.
An effective antiflux for prolonged
heating or higher temps can be made from
a suspension of rouge (ferric oxide) or chalk
(calcium carbonate) in alcohol.

TECHNIQUE
Involvesseveralcriticalsteps
A) Cleaningandpreparingthesurfacestobejoined.
B) Assemblingthepartstobejoined.
C) Preparingandfluxingthegapsurfacesbetweenthe
parts.
D) Maintainingtheproperpositionofthepartsduring
theprocedure.
E) Controllingthepropertemperature.
F) Controllingthetimetoensureadequateflowof
soldersandcompletefillingthesolderjoint.

Based on technique used, soldering

can be :
1.Investment soldering
2.Free hand soldering
3.Infra red soldering

Investment soldering
Recommended for precise arrangement of parts
for
bridge work or partial denture with wrought wire
clasp
arm.

Used when area of contact between the metallic

parts
being joined is large and whenever precision is
needed in joining the metals.

Procedure involves embedding of the metallic

parts
in an investment leaving a gap of about 0.13mm

Free hand soldering

Most commonly used in orthodontics.
Is done without use of an investment.
Solder is generally melted onto one of the parts,
then
they are held together and joint is heated.
Named so because torches can be placed on
bench so
that both hands are free to hold the parts in
position.

Infra red soldering

Instead of using a torch to provide heat, an infra
red
heating unit is available specifically for dental
soldering.
Unit uses the light from 1000 walt tungsten
filament
quartz iodine bulb, which is mounted at the
primary
focal point of a gold plated elliptical reflector.

Material to be soldered is placed at the reflectors

secondary focal point, at which the reflected infra
red
energy of the tungsten source is focused.
The main problem in the use of this unit is locating
the
focal centre of the light on the spot to be soldered.
Failure to focus at the right spot can result in cold
joints that are porous.

Joint design
Whenever
possible,
wires
should be joined by turning one
wire around the other and
soldering the joint.

The excess bulk formed can used to advantage as

in the stop lock for intermaxillary and extraoral
traction.
When soldering wires, the joint should be encased
completely in solder.

Soldered joint should not be polished as polishing

removes the outer layer of solder and exposes the
wire
thereby breaking the continuity of solder which
generally leads to failure of the joint.
Flux should be removed from soldered joints when
the
joint has barely cooled, by picking it away with a
probe.
The solder will be found to have a bright smooth
surface which is perfectly clean and hygienic.

Heat control
Most convenient method of melting solder for
stainless steel is by means of miniature butane
blow
lamp.
Jet of blow lamp should be small enough to
produce a
fine, needle flame (1cm long).
A soft, quiet, blue flame melts the solder
adequately
as well as gives the operator time to observe the
flow

Even slight overheating of the joint produces

burning
of the wire and solder resulting in weak joint and
rough pitted surface of the solder.
If possible soldering procedure should be done in
one
heating. Remelting a joint to add more solder and
make adjustments increase the rise of burning the
solder and wire.
Localization of heat to site of soldering is
important to
avoid annealing of a large section of wire.

Availability of solders
Dental solders are supplied in variety of shapes
and
forms such as strips, rods, wires or cubes.
Choice of solder depends largely on the operation
to
be performed and each form is available in range
of
fineness.
Thin strips represent the conventional form for
general
applications.
Fine wire forms are most desirable for orthodontic
applications.

Small cubes, approximately 1mm square are

convenient for soldering a contact area on an
inlay or
for other small soldering procedures.
Rod forms are often notched along two sides,
which
permit the rod to hold flux better than smooth
polished
rod or strip and notched rods do not roll back into
a
ball when melted.

General considerations
Gap
Should be neither too great nor too small.
If the gap is too great, joint strength will be
strength
of the filler metal.
If it is too narrow, strength will probably be limited
by flux inclusions, porosity caused by incomplete
flow of the filler metal or both.

Flame
Should be neutral or slightly reducing portion of
the
flame.
Flame application to the joint should be continuous
and not to be removed until the brazing is
complete.
Flame gives protection from oxidation especially at
the
brazing temperature.
Temperature
Should be the minimum
required to complete the
brazing operations.

Time
Longer time increases the possibility of diffusion
between parent metal and filler metal.
Shorter time increases possibility of incomplete
filling
of joint and possibility of flux inclusion in the joint.
Both conditions result in weaker joints.

MICROSTRUCTURE
EXCESSIVE HEATING TIME AND TEMPERATURE

RECRYSTALLIZATION TO VARYING DEGREES

REDUCTION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
IF EXCESSIVE DRAMATIC LOSS OF MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
TENDENCY TO BECOME BRITTLE AT AREAS IN
WHICH RECRYSTALLIZATION HAS TAKEN PLACE

Therefore to prevent changes in microstructure

the heating operation should be kept at minimum to
achieve a successful operation.
Defective soldering
Overheating of wires during soldering can lead to
diffusion between solder and wire, recrystallization,
surface pitting, internal porosity and microstructure
changes.

Failure to flow is generally due to one or more

of following :
Parts were too cool when solder was applied.
Flux insufficient to cover the joint.
Contamination owing to improper cleaning or
sulfur
released from overheated investment.
Oxidation from improperly adjusted torch or
oxidation
caused by removing the reduced portion of the
flame
from the joint before the solder flows.

Soldering application in orthodontics:

Quad helix with spring
Hooks for arch wires
Labial bow soldered to adams clasp
Lingual arches
Retention appliances

Welding

Definition
It is joining two pieces of metal without the use of
an intermediatory alloy.
Methods of welding
There are 3 methods of welding used in dentistry.
Each of them achieve
metal to metal contact
differently.
Pressure welding
Laser welding
Spot welding

Pressure welding
If two metals are placed together and a
sufficiently large pressure is applied
rectangular to the surface, pressure welding
occurs.
Pure gold has no surface oxides but
adsorbed gases prevent metal to metal
contact.

If the force is applied rapidly so that the

exposed surfaces can be compressed together
before surface gases adsorb and if the applied
force has a sufficiently large component parallel
to the surface to produce permanent distortions
that expose film free metal, pressure welding
results.
In pressure welding the problems of surface
roughness are overcome by large compressive
forces. eg gold foil (foil, mat or powdered pure
gold) restorations are pressure welded by hand
or mechanical condenses.

Laser welding
A laser generates a coherent, high intensity pulse
of light that can be focused.
By selecting the duration and intensity of the
pulse, metals can be melted in a small region
without extensive microstructural damage
to
surrounding areas.
In laser welding of metals the beam is focused at
the joint to melt the opposing surfaces.

Owing to the expansion form the locally high

temperature, and change of state, two liquid
surfaces contact and form a weld on solidification.
Lasers can be directed at small regions and can
apply high energy to these regions in a very short
amount of time. This means there is very little
heating of the total appliance, except at the point
of application.
This procedure can be performed on the master
cast.

Spot welding
Is a convenient method for uniting pieces
of metal of the same kind.
Method is clean and quick and produces
joints which are strong and reliable.
Most metals may be spot welded.

Process consists
of varying the
temperature of pieces of metal to be
joined until the metal becomes plastic but
not molten at the site of joint and
immediately applying pressure so that
the metal parts are squeezed together in
their plastic state and become one.
In spot welding, the pieces of metal to
be united are held together in the
required position and placed between two
copper alloy electrodes which press the
parts together.

In small bench machines. Spring pressure is

usually employed, when current is passed from one
electrode to the other through the metal, heat is
generated in and between the metal parts which is
sufficient to make them plastic. The pressure of the
electrodes then, forces the metal parts together, so
creating the weld.

Since the current is constant, so more heat will be

generated at the contact areas than in the interior
parts, therefore, the metals will become plastic first
at the contact point.

Small welds are generally considered

better since bonding is achieved with a
minimum of change in the original grain
structure.

Orthodontic welder design

Pioneer work on the design of a welder for
orthodontic purpose was done by Friel (1993) and
Mckeag (1939).
Welding machines from orthodontic purposes are
designed to deliver heavy currents for accurately
predetermined, very short time.
Spot welding is carried out without the aid of flux
or any other protecting material.

Heat required for spot welding is

generated at the interface of the
workpieces.
Longer the time allowed for a weld, the
greater the opportunity for heat developed
at the interface to spread into the
surrounding
metal and greater the
possibility for the full work piece thickness
rising to a temperature at which loss of
temper and softening can occur.

Feature of an orthodontic
electrodes which make
electrodes quickly available,
the electrodes together so
free.

welder include turret

various shapes of
a feature which holds
that both hands are

Timing switch may be automatic or controlled

electronically or by capacitor discharge.
Electrode design is important feature in
orthodontic welders, variety of electrodes tips are
required for welding of wires, latches and
attachments in fixed appliance construction which
are usually provided on rotating turrets so that any
pair of u & l may be selected.

When welding a light part to a heavy part the

bulk of the heavy part is not raised to welding
temp, only a skin at the surface making contact
with the light part becomes plastic.
Light tapes can be welded to heavy wires using
flat electrodes.
When welding light wires at heavy wires
precautions should be taken against overheating
the finer wire this can be overcome by using a
grooved electrodes to weld fine wire.

Another method to overcome the problem is to

make an attachment with a strap or loop of tape, so
avoiding actually welding the fine wire. This tape
can be welded to the arch wire making a strong
joint.
A properly welded joint does not need any
reinforcement.
It is impossible to solder the welded joint
properly as small extrusions of metal which is
tarnished prevent the flow of solder into the
interstices of the joint.
In general welds are more susceptible to
corrosion than are the metals surrounding them and
spot welding in dentistry has been confined to
temporary appliances, where the results have been

Thankyou