Fragmentation Prediction

Fundamentals of Block Caving

Geomechanics
May 5-9 2008

Definitions
Primary fragmentation the fragmentation
defined by the blocks in the vicinity of the
cave back as they separate from the cave back
when the undercut is mined and caving is
initiated.
Secondary fragmentation the fragmentation
produced in caved ore or rock during residence
in the ore column and draw.

Graphical Representation

Cumulative
Wt % Passing

Block volume or diameter

Tools
Block Cave Fragmentation (BCF)
Developed for prediction of both primary and secondary
fragmentation at Premier Mine.
Based primarily on rules established through experience
and engineering judgment (Esterhuizen, 1998).

Mechanistic Models
Primary Fragmentation
Discrete Fracture Networks (DFN)
Synthetic Rock Mass (SRM)

Secondary Fragmentation
Hardin model
Bridgwater model
PFC

Primary Fragmentation

BCF (Primary Fragmentation)

BCF calculates primary fragmentation based on:
Joint sets: The mean dip and dip direction of each joint set,
the range of dips and dip directions, the mean, maximum
and minimum joint spacings, the distribution type of the
joint spacing and the joint condition are required. If
available, the user may also enter the joint trace lengths of
each set.
Rock mass strength: The strength of the rock mass is
required to calculate potential stress spalling during
primary fragmentation and to determine whether blocks
will split when arches are formed in the draw column. The
intact rock strength, rock mass classification and
parameters for the Hoek-Brown empirical failure criterion
(Hoek and Brown 1980, 1997) are required.

BCF (Primary Fragmentation)

BCF calculates primary fragmentation based on:
Cave face orientation: The orientation of the cave face
determines the orientations of the stresses that are active
during caving. The dip and dip direction of the cave face
are required.
Stress: The stresses in the cave face are required for the
program to decide whether clamping, shear or tensile
separation will occur along the joint surfaces that form a
block. The stresses are also used to consider the formation
of stress fractures in the rock mass. The magnitudes of the
stresses in the solid rock, just inside the rock face, are
required. These stress levels may be determined by
numerical modelling or in situ measurements

Mechanistic Models
(Primary Fragmentation)
Synthetic Rock Mass
The in situ rock mass can be simulated by
developing a Discrete Fracture Network (a 3D
representation of the joints in the rock) and
embedding this in a PFC3D model of rock
(represented by spheres bonded at their contacts)
When compressed, the SRM material breaks up
into primary fragments that can be sized and
counted

Synthetic Rock Mass (SRM)

Intact Rock
+
(Bonded spheres in PFC)

Joints
(DFN)

Rock Mass

Example Compression of 2D SRM to

Evaluate Primary Fragmentation

Sigma 1

Sigma 1

Sigma 3 decreasing

Secondary Fragmentation

BCF (Secondary Fragmentation)

BCF considers two main modes of secondary
fragmentation:
block splitting
breakage of the entire fragment into two or more pieces

corner rounding
removal of small fragments (or fines) from the surface
of the block

These modes are consistent with published

experiments on granular materials.

BCF (Secondary Fragmentation)

Primary factors controlling secondary
fragmentation in BCF:
Material properties
Intact strength, block shape and block size distribution

Cave properties
Stress and distance travelled

These are critically reviewed here ..

Material Properties
Intact Strength
Rounding and splitting both decrease with
increasing strength
Larger blocks are weaker than smaller ones
Consistent with experimental studies

Material Properties
Block shape
Splitting increases with aspect ratio
Rounding increases with angularity
Some experimental studies suggest shape not as
important (e.g. Bridgwater et al, 2003)
Increasing Angularity
Increasing
Aspect Ratio

Material Properties
Block size distribution
Larger blocks are cushioned by smaller ones,
reducing likelihood of splitting.
Lab studies suggest that this effect results in
rotation of size distribution about the largest
fragment:

Fukumoto, 1992

Cave Factors
Stress
In BCF, splitting increases with average stress.
BCF considers that arching within the cave will
reduce average stress levels:
Yielded Zone

Stresses arch into walls

of cave
Average stress at the
cave base is less than
weight of overlying
caved rock
Average stress depends
on cave height and
hydraulic radius

Cave Factors
Stress
It may be more appropriate to consider local
stresses within the cave.
Stresses are low in moving zones (IMZs) and high in
surrounding stagnant zones.
High stress in
stagnant zones
outside IMZ

Low stress
inside IMZ

Laubscher

PFC3D

Cave Factors
Distance travelled/shear strain
In BCF, both splitting and rounding increase with
distance travelled, which is a function of draw.
It may be more appropriate to consider shear
strain rather than distance travelled:
Shear strains are high at the periphery of moving zones
(IMZs) and low in the center of IMZs and in stagnant
zones (see next slide).

Flow Simulation
PFC3D simulation of isolated
draw from a 100-m high column
Left-hand side is an axis of
symmetry
Yellow vectors indicate velocity

Click on plot to
start movie

Mechanistic Models
(Secondary Fragmentation)
Compression models
Most relevant to secondary fragmentation in stagnant zones
High stress, low shear strain conditions
Breakage by splitting

Shearing models
Most relevant to secondary fragmentation in movement
zones (IMZs)
Low stress, high shear strain conditions
Breakage by rounding at low stress (producing fines) and
by both rounding and splitting at higher stress (producing
more complete fragmentation)

Compression: Hardin Model

Hardin (1985) examined fragmentation in
compression tests on approximately 30 different soils,
ranging from rounded quartz sands to angular crushed
granite.
Experiments cover a wide range of size distributions,
shapes (angularity), stresses, porosities and strengths.
An empirical model for crushing of soil particles was
developed from the test results that may be relevant to
the study of secondary fragmentation via compression
in caves.

Compression: Hardin Model

Fragmentation increases with increasing
fragment size (because larger fragments are
weaker)
Fragmentation increases with stress.
Fragmentation increases with increasing void
ratio (or porosity).
Fragmentation increases with increasing
angularity.

Compression: Hardin Model

Hardin considers that the material has a breakage
potential, Bp, that is the area between the initial curve
and silt size material
Unit area is the area of one log cycle
Unit area defined
as one log cycle:

Initial curve

Gerolymos and Gazetas, 2007

Compression: Hardin Model

The total breakage, Bt, describes how far the
size distribution drops and is equal to the area
between the two curves (using same unit area
definition as in last slide):

Gerolymos and Gazetas, 2007

Compression: Hardin Model

Compression: Hardin Model

Compression: Hardin Model

Compression: Hardin Model

Compression: PFC3D Model

Blocks represented by
bonded clusters of
particles

Compression: PFC3D Model

Compression: PFC3D Model

Compression: PFC3D Model

Compression: PFC3D Model

Compression-induced PSD changes in PFC3D Model

Shearing: Bridgwater Model

Bridgwaters model suggests that under shear, the mass
produced by splitting and rounding is strongly controlled by
the product if stress and shear strain, normalized to tensile
strength:

N
W K N
scs

where W is the mass fraction attrited for a given normal stress

N and shear strain , scs is the tensile strength and KN, and
are empirical constants.
The product of stress and strain is essentially the work done on
the material

Shearing: Bridgwater Model

Ratio of stress
inside IMZ to
tensile strength of
rock block
Shear strain
experienced by
block inside IMZ
Size distribution of
material broken
from block after
given level of shear
strain