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CHAPTER 11

MetalCastingProcesses

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2001PrenticeHall

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TABLE 11.1
Process

Summary of
Casting
Processes

Advantages

Limitations

Sand

Almostanymetalcast;nolimit
tosize,shapeorweight;low
toolingcost.

Somefinishingrequired;
somewhatcoarsefinish;wide
tolerances.

Shellmold

Gooddimensionalaccuracyand
surfacefinish;highproduction
rate.

Partsizelimited;expensive
patternsandequipment
required.

Expendablepattern

Mostmetalscastwithnolimit
tosize;complexshapes

Patternshavelowstrengthand
canbecostlyforlowquantities

Plastermold

Intricateshapes;good
dimensionalaccuracyand
finish;lowporosity.

Limitedtononferrousmetals;
limitedsizeandvolumeof
production;moldmakingtime
relativelylong.

Ceramicmold

Intricateshapes;close
toleranceparts;goodsurface
finish.

Limitedsize.

Investment

Intricateshapes;excellent
surfacefinishandaccuracy;
almostanymetalcast.

Partsizelimited;expensive
patterns,molds,andlabor.

Permanentmold

Goodsurfacefinishand
dimensionalaccuracy;low
porosity;highproductionrate.

Highmoldcost;limitedshape
andintricacy;notsuitablefor
highmeltingpointmetals.

Die

Excellentdimensionalaccuracy
andsurfacefinish;high
productionrate.

Diecostishigh;partsize
limited;usuallylimitedto
nonferrousmetals;longlead
time.

Centrifugal

Largecylindricalpartswith
goodquality;highproduction
rate.

Equipmentisexpensive;part
shapelimited.

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Die-Casting Examples
(a)

(b)

Figure11.1(a)ThePolaroidPDC2000digitalcamerawithaAZ91Ddiecast,highpurity
magnesiumcase.(b)TwopiecePolaroidcameracasemadebythehotchamberdiecasting
process.Source:CourtesyofPolaroidCorporationandChicagoWhiteMetalCasting,Inc.
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General Characteristics of Casting Processes


TABLE 11.2

Process

Typical
materials
cast

Weig ht(kg)
Minimum

Sand
All
Shell
All
Expendable
mold
pattern
All
Nonferrous
Plaster
(Al,Mg,Zn,
mold
Cu)
All
(Highmelting
Investment
pt.)
Permanent
mold
All
Nonferrous
(Al,Mg,Zn,
Die
Cu)
Centrifugal
All

Maximum

Typical
surface
finish
Porosity*
(m,Ra)

Sectionthic kness(mm)
Shape Dimensional
complexity* accuracy* Minimum

Maximum

0.05
0.05

Nolimit
100+

525
13

4
4

12
23

3
2

3
2

Nolimit

0.05

Nolimit

520

Nolimit

0.05

50+

12

12

0.005

100+

13

75

0.5

300

23

23

34

50

1
3

0.5
2

12
100

<0.05
50
12
12
34

5000+
210
12
34
*Relativerating:1best,5worst.
Note :Theseratingsareonlygeneral;significantvariationscanoccur,dependingonthemethodsused.

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Casting Examples
Figure 11.2 Typical grayiron castings used in
automobiles, including
transmission valve body
(left) and hub rotor with
disk-brake cylinder (front).
Source: Courtesy of Central
Foundry Division of General
Motors Corporation.

Figure 11.3 A cast


transmission housing.
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Sand Mold Features

Figure11.4Schematicillustrationofasandmold,showingvariousfeatures.

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Steps in Sand Casting

Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

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Pattern Material Characteristics


TABLE 11.3
Characteristic

Wood

Aluminum

Rating
Steel

Plastic

Castiron

Machinability
E
G
F
G
G
Wearresistance
P
G
E
F
E
Strength
F
G
E
G
G
Weightb
E
G
P
G
P
Repairability
E
P
G
F
G
Resistanceto:
Corrosionc
E
E
P
E
P
Swellingc
P
E
E
E
E
aE,Excellent;G,good;F,fair;P,poor.
bAsafactorinoperatorfatigue.
cBywater.
Source :D.C.EkeyandW.R.Winter,IntroductiontoFoundryTechnology. NewYork.
McGrawHill,1958.
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Patterns for Sand Casting


Figure 11.6 A typical metal
match-plate pattern used in
sand casting.

Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for ease


of removal from the sand mold.

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Examples of Sand Cores and Chaplets

Figure 11.8 Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.

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Squeeze Heads
Figure 11.9 Various designs
of squeeze heads for mold
making: (a) conventional flat
head; (b) profile head; (c)
equalizing squeeze pistons;
and (d) flexible diaphragm.
Source: Institute of British
Foundrymen. Used with
permission.

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Vertical Flaskless Molding

Figure 11.10 Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern. (b)
Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring.

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Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting

Figure 11.11 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel
Founders' Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the
pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns have
been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed to
hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will be
used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by
securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and
risers. (continued)
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Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting (cont.)

Figure 11.11 (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is
produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned
with pins. (i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the
appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the cope
on top of the drag and buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies, the
casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the casting is cleaned,
inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).
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Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking Processes

Figure 11.12 Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking processes. See also Figs. 22.14 and
26.4 for comparison with other manufacturing processes.

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Dump-Box Technique
Figure 11.13 A common
method of making shell
molds. Called dump-box
technique, the limitations are
the formation of voids in the
shell and peelback (when
sections of the shell fall off
as the pattern is raised).
Source: ASM International.

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Composite Molds

Figure 11.14 (a) Schematic illustration of a semipermanent composite mold. Source: Steel
Castings Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. (b) A composite
mold used in casting an aluminum-alloy torque converter. This part was previously cast in
an all-plaster mold. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.

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Expendable Pattern Casting


Figure 11.15
Schematic
illustration of the
expendable
pattern casting
process, also
known as lost
foam or
evaporative
casting.

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Ceramic Molds
Figure 11.16 Sequence of operations in
making a ceramic mold. Source: Metals
Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.

Figure 11.17 A typical ceramic


mold (Shaw process) for casting
steel dies used in hot forging.
Source: Metals Handbook, vol.
5, 8th ed.
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Figure 11.18
Schematic
illustration of
investment
casting, (lost-wax
process).
Castings by this
method can be
made with very
fine detail and
from a variety of
metals. Source:
Steel Founders'
Society of
America.

Investment
Casting

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Investment Casting of a Rotor

Figure 11.19 Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax pattern assembly.
(b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is melted out and the mold is filled, under a vacuum,
with molten superalloy. (d) The cast rotor, produced to net or near-net shape. Source: Howmet
Corporation.

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Investment and Conventionally Cast Rotors


Figure 11.20 Crosssection and
microstructure of two
rotors: (top)
investment-cast;
(bottom) conventionally
cast. Source: Advanced
Materials and
Processes, October
1990, p. 25 ASM
International

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Vacuum-Casting Process

Figure 11.21 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a
bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source: From
R. Blackburn, "Vacuum Casting Goes Commercial," Advanced Materials and Processes,
February 1990, p. 18. ASM International.
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Pressure Casting

Figure 11.22 (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the production of steel
railroad wheels. Source: The Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated. (b) Gravitypouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a riser. Railroad
wheels can also be manufactured by forging.

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Hot- and Cold-Chamber Die-Casting


(a)

(b)

Figure 11.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process. (b) Schematic
illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and
Technology.

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Cold-Chamber Die-Casting Machine

(a)

Figure 11.24 (a) Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber die-casting machine.


These machines are large compared to the size of the casting because large forces are
required to keep the two halves of the dies closed.

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Hot-Chamber Die-Casting Machine


(b)

Figure 11.24 (b) 800-ton hot-chamber die-casting machine, DAM 8005 (made
in Germany in 1998). This is the largest hot-chamber machine in the world
and costs about $1.25 million.

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Die-Casting Die Cavities


Figure 11.25 Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source: Courtesy of
American Die Casting Institute.

Figure 11.26 Examples of


cast-in- place inserts in die
casting. (a) Knurled
bushings. (b) Grooved
threaded rod.

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Properties and Typical Applications of


Common Die-Casting Alloys
TABLE 11.4

Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)

Yield
strength
(MPa)

Elongation
in50mm
(%)

Aluminum380(3.5Cu8.5Si)

320

160

2.5

13(12Si)

300

150

2.5

Brass858(60Cu)

380

200

15

MagnesiumAZ91B(9Al0.7Zn)

230

160

ZincNo.3(4Al)

280

10

5(4Al1Cu)

320

Alloy

Applications
Appliances,automotivecomponents,
electricalmotorframesandhousings
Complexshapeswiththinwalls,parts
requiringstrengthatelevated
temperatures
Plumbingfiztures,lockhardware,
bushings,ornamentalcastings
Powertools,automotiveparts,sporting
goods
Automotiveparts,officeequipment,
householdutensils,buildinghardware,
toys
Appliances,automotiveparts,building
hardware,businessequipment

Source :DatafromAmericanDieCastingInstitute

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Centrifugal Casting Process

Figure 11.27 Schematic


illustration of the centrifugal
casting process. Pipes,
cylinder liners, and similarly
shaped parts can be cast with
this process.
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Semicentrifugal Casting

Figure 11.28 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can
be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at
the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.

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2001PrenticeHall

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Squeeze-Casting

Figure 11.29 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the
advantages of casting and forging.

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Single Crystal Casting of Turbine Blades


Figure 11.30 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional solidification; (b) method to produce
a single-crystal blade; and (c) a single-crystal blade with the constriction portion still attached.
Source: (a) and (b) B. H. Kear, Scientific American, October 1986; (c) Advanced Materials and
Processes, October 1990, p. 29, ASM International.
(c)

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Single Crystal Casting


Figure 11.31 Two methods of
crystal growing: (a) crystal
pulling (Czochralski process)
and (b) the floating-zone
method. Crystal growing is
especially important in the
semiconductor industry.
Source: L. H. Van Vlack,
Materials for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Inc., 1982.

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Melt Spinning
Figure 11.32 Schematic
illustration of melt-spinning to
produce thin strips of
amorphous metal.

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Types of Melting Furnaces


Figure 11.33 Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible, and (b) cupola.

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