Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Source
1. Computer Networks, Andrew S.
Tanenbaum
2. www.cisco.com
3. www.novell.com
4. www.rad.com
5. www.3com.com
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INTRODUCTION
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NETWORK GOALS
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Communications
Information can be distributed very quickly, such as
email and video conferencing.
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Saving Money
Resources such as information, software, and
hardware can be shared.
CPUs and hard disks can be pooled together to
create a more powerful machine.
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APPLICATIONS
A lot of things we take for granted are the result of
computer networks.
Email
Chat
Web sites
Sharing of documents and pictures
Accessing a centralized database of information
Mobile workers
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NETWORK STRUCTURE
The subnet interconnects hosts.
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Subnet
Carries messages from host to host. It is made up
of telecommunication lines (i.e. circuits, channels,
trunks) and switching elements (i.e. IMPs, routers).
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Hosts
End user machines or computers.
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NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
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1. Protocol Hierarchies
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NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
2. Design Issues for the Layers
Mechanism for connection establishment
Rules for data transfer
Error control
Fast sender swamping a slow receiver
Inability of processes to accept long messages
Routing in the case of multiple paths
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Transmission mediums
Encoding
Modulation
RS232 and RS422 standards
Repeaters
Hubs (multi-port repeater)
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Framing methods
Error detection and correction methods
Flow control
Frame format
IEEE LAN standards
Bridges
Switches (multi-port bridges)
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Main topics:
Internetworking
Routing algorithms
Internet Protocol (IP) addressing
Routers
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Main topics:
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Network File System (NFS)
Telnet
SERVICES
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SERVICES
2. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Connection-Oriented before data is sent, the
service from the sending computer must establish
a connection with the receiving computer.
Connectionless data can be sent at any time by
the service from the sending computer.
Q: Is downloading a music file from the Internet
connection-oriented or connectionless?
Q: Is email connection-oriented or connectionless?
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SERVICES
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3. Service Primitives
Request entity wants the service to do some
work
Indicate entity is to be informed about an event
Response entity responds to an event
Confirm entity is to be informed about its request
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Sending Computer
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1. request
4. confirm
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Receiving Computer
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2. indicate
3. response
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BANDWIDTH
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Q: Is 100MHz = 100Mbps?
Q: Is 100Mbps = 100MBps?
Hello
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Hello
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Hello
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PH
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Hello
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DH
Bits
DT
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PHYSICAL LAYER
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OVERVIEW
1. Signals
Fourier analysis
Maximum data rate of a channel
2. Transmission Media
Guided and Unguided
3. Analog Transmission
Modulation
Modems
RS-232, RS-422
4. Digital Transmission
Encoding schemes
Repeaters and hubs
5. Transmission and Switching
Multiplexing (FDM and TDM)
Circuit vs. packet switching
SIGNALS
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1. Fourier Analysis
a) All signals can be represented mathematically.
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SIGNALS
2. Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
Nyquist
Maximum data rate = 2H log2V (bits/sec)
H = line bandwidth
V = a signal with V discrete levels
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Example:
A noiseless 3kHz channel cannot transmit binary
(2 level) signals at a rate faster than 6000bps
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SIGNALS
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Shannon
Maximum data rate (bits/sec) = H log2(1+ PS/PN)
H = line bandwidth
PS = signal strength in watts
PN = noise strength in watts
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Example:
A 3kHz channel with a noise ratio of 30dB
(PS/PN = 1000) cannot transmit at a rate faster
than 30,000bps
(3k) log2(1001) = 30,000bps
Note: SNR = 10log10(PS/PN)
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SIGNALS
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Attenuation
The signal received is weaker than the signal sent.
Attenuation (dB) = 10log10(P1/P2)
Amplification
The signal received is stronger than the signal
sent.
Amplification (dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
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Note:
P1 = transmitted signal power in watts
P2 = received signal power in watts
Q: If the result of the attenuation formula is negative, what
happened to the signal?
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
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1. Guided
Data is sent via a wire or optical cable.
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Twisted Pair
Two copper wires are twisted together to reduce
the effect of crosstalk noise. (e.g. Cat5, UTP, STP)
Baseband Coaxial Cable
A 50-ohm cable used for digital transmission. Used
in 10Base2 and 10Base5.
Broadband Coaxial Cable
A 75-ohm cable used for analog transmission such
as Cable TV.
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber Optic Cables
Two general types are multimode and single mode.
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* Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap (higher security)
and are normally used for backbone cabling.
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
2. Unguided
Data is sent through the air.
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Line-of-sight
Transmitter and receiver must see each other,
such as a terrestrial microwave system.
Communication Satellites
A big microwave repeater in the sky. Data is
broadcasted, and can be pirated.
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Radio
Term used to include all frequency bands, such as
FM, UHF, and VHF television.
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ANALOG TRANSMISSION
1. Modulation
Modulating a sine wave carrier to convey data.
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Phase Modulation
Wave is shifted, while amplitude and frequency
remains constant.
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ANALOG TRANSMISSION
2. Modems
A device that accepts digital signals and outputs a
modulated carrier wave, and vice versa.
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ANALOG TRANSMISSION
3. RS-232 and RS-449
Two well known physical layer standards.
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RS-232
20 kbps
Cables up to 15 meters
Unbalanced transmission (common ground)
RS-422
2 Mbps at 60 meters
1 Mbps at 100 meters
Balanced transmission (a pair of wires for Tx, Rx)
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DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
1. Encoding Schemes
Converting logical data into electrical signals
suitable for transmission.
Manchester
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Differential Manchester
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DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
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Repeaters
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Hubs
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Multi-port repeater.
Interconnects several computers.
Does not filter data traffic.
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* Picture from 3com.com
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NETWORK LAYER
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OVERVIEW
1. Routing Algorithms
Shortest Path
Flooding
Flow-based
Distance Vector
Link State
Hierarchical
Broadcast
Multicast
Routing for Mobile Hosts
2. Congestion control
3. IP Addressing
4. Routers
ROUTING ALGORITHMS
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1. Shortest Path
C(B,3)
B(A,2)
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2
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A(-,-)
D(E,3)
D
2
E(A,2)
E
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AED F
A E F is the answer.
3
1
F(E,4)
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ROUTING ALGORITHMS
2. Flooding
Packet
IMP
B
Packet to IMP C
Packet to IMP D
Packet to IMP E
IP ADDRESSING
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Format
xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
where x is either 0 or 1
Example 1:
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11111111. 11111111.00000000.00000000
255.255.0.0
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Example 2:
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11111111. 11111111.10000000.00000000
255.255.192.0
IP ADDRESSING
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Network Address
Example 1:
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IP ADDRESSING
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Mask
Valid mask are contiguous 1s from left to right.
Examples:
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Valid
255.0.0.0
255.255.0.0
255.255.255.0
Invalid
255.1.0.0
255.0.255.0
255.255.64.0
200.255.0.0
IP ADDRESSING
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Subnets
The Internet is running out of IP address. One solution
is to subnet a network address.
This is done by borrowing host bits to be used as
network bits.
Example:
Class B mask 255.255.0.0
Borrowing 1 bit gives a subnet mask of 255.255.128.0
Borrowing 2 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.192.0
Borrowing 3 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.224.0
Borrowing 4 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0
IP ADDRESSING
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Example:
Given an IP address of 180.200.0.0, subnet by
borrowing 4 bits.
Subnet mask = 255.255.240.0
The 4 bits borrowed are value 128, 64, 32, 16. This will
create 16 sub networks, where the first and last will be
unusable.
Sub network address:
180.200.0.0
180.200.16.0
180.200.32.0
180.200.48.0
180.200.64.0
etc
IP ADDRESSING
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180.200.16.1 to 180.200.31.254
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180.200.31.255
ROUTERS
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180.200.0.0
202.5.3.0