Interfacing to Microprocessors

Chapter 12

introduction
What constitutes a controller will vary from
application to application.
It may be no more than an amplifier or a switch.
It may be a complex system that may include
computers and other types of processors such as
data acquisition and signal processors.
Most of the time, it is a microprocessors.
We shall therefore focus the discussion here on
microprocessors.

introduction
Focus on microprocessors as general purpose,
flexible and reconfigurable controllers and the
ways sensors and actuator relate to these.
Microprocessors are often called microcontrollers
What is a microprocessor? What is the different
between a microprocessor and a computer or a
microcomputer and how a distinguishing set of
features is arrived at are all difficult and subjective
issues. What is a microprocessor to one is a full
fledged computer to another

The microprocessor
A microprocessor is a stand alone, self contained
single chip microcomputer.
It must have as a minimum:
a central processing unit (CPU)
nonvolatile and program memory
input and output capabilities.

A structure that has these can be programmed in

some convenient programming language
can interact with the outside world through the
input/output ports.

The microprocessor
Other important requirements:

must be relatively simple

reasonably small
necessarily limited in most of its features memory,
processing power and speed, addressing range and, of
course in number of I/O devices it can interact with.
The designer must have access to all features of the
microprocessor bus, memory, registers, all I/O ports,

In short, Microprocessors are components with

flexible features that the engineer can configure and
program to perform task or a series of tasks.

The microprocessor
Two limits on the tasks microprocessors can
perform:
The limitations of the microprocessor itself
The imagination (or capabilities) of the
designer.

The 8 bit microprocessor

We will narrow down to 8 bit microprocessors
these are the most common in sensor/actuator systems
they are simple and representative of all microprocessor

16 and 32 bit microprocessors exist

There are a number of architectures being used.
We will emphasize the Harvard architecture
because of its simplicity, flexibility and popularity.

The architecture
There are about two dozen manufacturers of
microprocessors
All based on a few architectures.
We shall only briefly describe here one
architecture the Harvard architecture
used in many microprocessors
Simple and efficient
The choice in smaller microprocessor
Example: Microchip and Atmel microprocessors

The architecture
Main features:
Separate busses for program memory and operand
memory.
Pipelined architecture
Allows fetching data while another operation executes.
Each cycle consists of fetching the (n+1)th instruction
while executing the nth
Integer arithmetic
Limited instruction set

The architecture
Bus widths vary depending on manufacturer and
on the microprocessor size.
Example: Figure 12.1, bus architecture for a
PIC18F452 from Microchip.
The instruction is 16bit
Program address is 15bit wide.
Data is 8bits and
Operand address is 12 bits.
These vary from device to device.

Bus architecture

The architecture
Example, the smallest microprocessors
available (PIC10FXX) are 6 pin devices
Summarized in Table 12.1.
The architecture for this device is shown in
Figure 12.2.
Here the program address bus is only 9 bits
while the instruction buss is 12 bits.

PIC10FXX microprocessors

PIC10FXX microprocessors

The architecture
Example: one of the largest, is the
PIC18FXX20
Has an address bus 21 bits wide.
The processor and its variants are shown in
Table 12.2
Its architecture in Figure 12.3.

The architecture
Architecture supports:
Direct addressing for the first 8 bits of address space
Indirect addressing (variable pointer addressing) for
all memory space.
Includes a CPU with associated status bits and a set
of special functions registers.
I/O ports, other peripherals (such as comparators,
A/D converters, PWM modules, etc.)
Timers, status indications and much more,

The architecture
All modules available to the user.
User writable registers are also provided.
Microprocessors have been designed to respond to
specific needs: common to find modifications that
respond to these needs
Example: various processors from the same family
may have a different instruction sets
PIC10FXX has 33 instructions
PIC18FXX20 has 77 instructions
ATmega128 (from Atmel) has 133 instructions.

The architecture
Memory varies from 256 bytes to over 256
kbytes
Number of peripherals, ports, etc vary from
as few as 4 to over 100
Physical size: from 6 pin to 100 pins
Various chip configurations (DIP, surface
mount, dies etc.)

Addressing
8 bit microprocessors have word length of 8 bits.
Integer data from 0 to 255 may be represented
directly.
To address memory, usually a longer word is
needed.
Most microprocessor have a 12 bit (4k) 14 (16k)
or 16 bit (64k) memory address but longer address
words are also used.

Speed
Most microprocessor operate at clock
speeds between 1 and 40 MHz.
Since often the clock is internally divided,
the instruction cycle is slower than that
Typical values are up to about 10 MHz
cycle clock or 0.1 s per instruction

Instruction set
Microprocessors have a small instruction set
sometimes no more than 2-3 dozen simple
instructions.
Varies from a minimum of about 30 to a maximum of
about 150 instructions.
These are selected to cover the common requirements
of programming a device
Allows one to perform almost any task that can be
physically performed within the basic limitations of
the device.

Instruction set
Instructions include:
logical instructions (AND, OR, XOR, etc.)
move and branching instructions (allow one to move data from
and to registers and conditional and unconditional branching)
bit instructions (operations on single bits in an operand)
arithmetic instructions such as add and subtract,
subroutine calls
other instructions that have to do with the performance of the
microprocessor such as reset, sleep and others.

Some are bit oriented, some are byte (register) oriented,

some are literal and control operations

Input and output

Input and output is defined by the availability of pins
on the package.
Usually limited to less than about 100 pins (6, 8, 14,
18, 20, 28, 32, 40, 44, 64 and 100 pins are common).
Two pins are used to power to the device
For example, an 18 pin device can have no more than
14 I/O pins.
Of these, some may be used for other purposes such
as oscillators or communication

Input and output

All microprocessor will have a number of pins
available as I/O.
Example, a 6 pin microprocessor may have as
many as 4 I/O, a 64 pin processor can have in
excess of 48 I/O pins.
I/O pins are grouped into ports, each addressable
as an 8 bit word (each group has up to 8 I/O pins).
Different ports may have different properties and
may be able to perform different functions.

Input and output

I/O pins are tri-state enabling an I/O pin to serve
as input, output or to be disconnected.
Most I/O are digital but some may be configured
as analog as well.
I/O pins can supply or sink considerable current
usually in the range of 20-25 mA.
This is not sufficient to drive many actuators but it
can drive low power devices directly or indirectly
through switches and amplifiers.

Clock and timers

Microprocessor must have a timing mechanism
that defines the instruction cycle.
This is done by an oscillator
Oscillators may be internal or external.
Usually and RC oscillator is used for internal
oscillation
A crystal is the most common way of setting the
frequency externally (this requires either dedicated
pins or the use of two I/O pins).

Clock and timers

The oscillator frequency is usually divided
internally to define the basic cycle time.
Microprocessors have internal timers

under the control of the user

used for various functions requiring counting/timing
At least one counter is available
larger microprocessors can have 4 or more timers
some are 8 bit timers and some 16 bit timers.
a watchdog timer is available for the purpose of resetting
the processor should it be stuck in an inoperative mode.

Clock and timers

Registers
Used for
Execution of commands
Control over the functions of the microprocessor,
Addressing
Flagging
Status indication

Memory
Modern microprocessors, contain three
types of memory:
program memory, in which the program is
loaded,
data memory (RAM),
EEPROM memory
Note: EEPROM not available on some very
small microprocessors.

Memory
Program memory is usually the largest
From less than 256 bytes to over 256kBytes.
In most cases, flash memory which means that is
rewritable at will and is nonvolatile (program is
retained until rewritten or erased).
Data memory (RAM) is usually quite small and may
be a small fraction of the program memory
Does not retain data upon removal of power.
EEPROM is nonvolatile rewritable memory used
mostly to write data during execution

Power
Most microprocessor operate from 1.8V to 6V.
Some have a more limited range (2.7-5.5V).
Based on CMOS technology: This means that:
power consumption is very modest.
power consumption is frequency dependent.

The higher the frequency the higher the power

consumed

Power

Power is also dependent on

What the processor does
Which modules are functioning at any given time.
The user has considerable control over power
consumption through:
Choice of frequency
Mode of operation
Special functions such as interrupt wakeup and sleep.

Other functionalities
Microprocessor must have certain modules (CPU,
memory and I/O)
They can have many more modules
Add functionality and flexibility
Many microprocessors include

comparators (for digitization purposes),

A/D converters,
Capture and Compare (CCP) modules,
PWM generators
Communication interfaces.

Other functionalities
One or two comparators are provided on many
microprocessors.
Depending on the microprocessors 8 or 10 bit A/D
converters are provided, usually in multiple
channels (4 to 16).
PWM channels (up to 8) are common on some
processors.
Serial interfaces such as UART, SPI, two wire
interface (I2C), synchronous serial and USB ports
are available

Other functionalities
Many microprocessors provide multiple
interfaces, all under the users control.
Other functions such as analog amplifiers and
even transceivers are sometimes incorporated
within the chip.
The I/O used for these functions are either digital
I/O (for communication for example) or analog
I/O (for A/D for example)

Programs and
programmability
A microprocessor is only useful if it can be
programmed.
Programming languages and compilers have been
designed specifically for microprocessors.
The basic method of programming
microprocessors is through the Assembly
programming language
Can be, and very often is done through use of
higher level languages with C leading.

Programs and
programmability
These are specific compilers, adapted for a class of
microprocessors.
They are based on a standard C compiled (such as
ANSI C) and modified to produce executables that
can be loaded onto the microprocessor.
Most microprocessors can be programmed in
circuit allowing changes to be made, or the
processors to be programmed or reprogrammed
after the circuit has been built.

Programs and
programmability
Instruction sets for microprocessors are small and
based on the assembly language nomenclature.
Microprocessors have been designed for integer
operations.
Programming for control, especially sequential
control is simple and logical.
Floating point operations and, are either not practical
or difficult and tedious.
They also tend to require considerable time and
should only be attempted if absolutely necessary.

Programs and
programmability
There are both integer and floating point
libraries freely available.
Floating point operations are only practical
on the larger microprocessors because they
require much memory.

Examples of microprocessors

PIC10FXXX (low level, 6 pin),

PIC16F62X (midrange, 18 pin),
PIC18FXX20 (high level, 64 or 80 pin),
Atmega128 (high level, 64 pin).
A comparison of these typical processors
will reveal most of the properties and
capabilities of microprocessors.

Interfacing Issues
Three basic modes:
1. Continuous dedicated monitoring of the
sensor by the microprocessor
2. Polling the sensor
3. Interrupt mode

Continuous mode
Microprocessor is dedicated for use with
the sensor
Its output is monitored by the
microprocessor continuously
The microprocessor reads the sensors
output at a given rate
Output is then used to act

Poling mode
Sensor operates as if the microprocessor
did not exist.
Its output is monitored by the
microprocessor
The microprocessor reads the sensors
output at a given rate or intervals poling
Output is then used to act

Interrupt mode
Microprocessor is in sleep mode
Outputs of the sensor are not being
processed
Upon a given event, microprocessor
wakes up through one of its interrupt
options
The sensor activates the interrupt

Notes:
Interrupts can be timed
Interrupts can be issued by sources other
than the sensor
The microprocessor may be involved in
other functions, separate from the sensor,
such as control of an actuator
Feedback from actuators may also be
used to perform interrupts

General Interfacing
Requirements
Microprocessor input interfacing
requirements
Microprocessor output
requirements
Errors introduced by
microprocessors

Input interfacing
requirements
Signal level
Impedance and matching
Response, frequency
Signal conditioning
Signal scaling
Isolation
Loading

Output interfacing
requirements
Signal levels
Power levels
Isolation

Input signal levels

Basic level: zero to Vdd
Must scale signals if necessary

No dual polarity signals

Must translate/scale as necessary

Direct reading or A/D

Can read voltages only
AC or DC
Limitations in frequency

Impedance
P are high input impedance devices
~ 1 - 10 M
Input current - < 1 A.

Ideal for direct connection of low

impedance sensors (magnetic,
thermistors, thermoelectric, etc.)
High impedance sensors (capacitive,
pyroelectric, etc.) must be buffered
Voltage followers
FET amplifiers

Response and frequency

Most sensors are slow devices
Can be interfaced directly
No concern for response and frequency
range

Some sensors are part of oscillators

Frequencies may be quite high
Need to worry about proper sampling by the
microprocessor

Response and frequency

Example: 10 mHz P, cycle time of 0.4 s.
(most processor divide the clock frequency
by a factor - 4 in this case)
Any operation such as reading an input
required n cycles, say n=5
Effective frequency: 0.5 MHz
Sampling cannot be done at rates higher
than 250 kHz
Any sensor producing a signal above this
frequency will be read erroneously

Response and frequency

Some solutions:
Divide the sensors frequency
Reduces sensitivity
Must be done externally to the P

F-V converter
Introduces conversion errors
Must be done externally

Frequency counter at input

Use output of the counter as input to mP.
Expensive

Faster microprocessors

Input signal conditioning

Offset
Primarily for dc levels
Can be offset up or down
Usually done to remove the dc level
Sometimes needed to remove negative
polarity.
AC signals may sometimes be coupled
through capacitors to eliminate dc levels

Offset
Example
Thermistor: 500 at 20C
Varies from 100 to 900 for temp. between 0
and 100C

Offset
At 500C
V = (12/1500)*500 = 4 V

At 0C
V = (12/1400)*400 = 3.428 V

At 100C
V = (12/1900)*900 = 5.684 V

V varies between 3.428V and 5.684V

5.684V is above the 5V operating voltage of
the microprocessor

Offset
Some solutions
Remove 3.428V through an inverting amplifier
Reduce the source voltage from 12V to, say
6V. This will change the range from 1.714V to
2.842V
Increase the resistor from 1000W to, say,
1500 W. This will reduce the output and will
vary from 2.526V to 4.5V

Offset - other solutions

For ac signals
Rectification
Only appropriate if signal is unipolar

Bi-polar signals produce negative signals

Cannot be used with microprocessors

Offset - other solutions

Bridge connection
Battery must be floating
Output: 0V at 0C to 2.3V at 100C.
Offset of arbitrary value can be added
Done by decreasing the value of lower-left resistor
1V offset with 285.7 resistor

Scaling
By amplification
Operational amplifiers

By attenuation
Operational amplifiers
Resistance dividers
Transformers (for ac)

Amplifiers are preferrable

Dividers introduce errors
Transformers are noisy and big

Isolation
Two basic methods
Transformers
Optical isolation

Loading
Microprocessors load the sensor
Not an issue with low impedance sensors
Must be buffered for high impedance
sensors
Solution: voltage followers with FET input
stages
An error due to loading should be taken into
account

Output Interface
Most microprocessors:
1.8 to 6V
20 to 25 mA per output pin
Can power small loads directly (LEDs, small
relays)
Protection diodes on all outputs

Output Interface
Large loads:
Must add circuitry to boost current, power
MOSFETS are ideal for this purpose
Inductive loads: must add protection against
large spikes
Often necessary to isolate output
Very often necessary to translate voltages for
output

Output pins
MOSFETS:
Driven

Output pins connection of

loads
Sourcing current
Sinking current
The two are somewhat different:

Errors and resolution

Errors introduced by the
microprocessor:
Due to resolution of A/D, D/A
Sampling errors

These come in addition to any errors

in the sensor/actuator

Resolution
Digital systems have an inherent
resolution:
LSB - least significant bit
Any value smaller than the LSB cannot
be represented
This constitutes an error
LSB is inherent in any module as well as
in the CPU itself

Resolution of modules
A/D - n bits resolution, meaning:
a 10 bit A/D, digitizing a 5V input has a resolution
of:
5V/1024 = 4.88 mV

The A/D can resolve down to 4.88 mV

Can represent data in increments of 4.88 mV
(a 14 bit A/D resolves down to 0.3 mV)
For a 1V span on a sensor, this is approximately
0.5% error

Resolution of modules
PWM (Pulse Width Modulator)
Given a clock frequency fosc, the PWM resolution
is:
log
PWMres

. =

osc

/ f

log

(2)

PWM

CPU errors
Most microprocessors are 8 bit
microprocessors
Integer arithmetics
Largest value represented: 256
Roundoff errors due to this representation
Special math subroutines have been
developed to minimize these errors
(otherwise they would be unacceptably
high)

Sampling errors
All inputs and outputs on a microprocessor
are sampled. That is:
Inputs are only read at intervals
Outputs are only updated at intervals
Intervals depend on the frequency of the clock, operation
to be executed and on the software that executes it
Sampling may not even be constant during operation
because of the need to perform different tasks at different
times
Errors are due to changes in input/output between
sampling to which the microprocessor is oblivious
Errors are not fixed - depend among other things on how
well the program is written