I.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 METHODOLOGY, METHOD AND
TECHNIQUES
Methodological issues in the social
sciences
concern the nature of
knowledge and the process of
understanding.
The theoretical basis of social science
methodologies helps us with the
production of valid knowledge about
the
social world.

Science is in this sense is a set of principles or a

methodology that tells us how to produce valid
knowledge.
So it can be said that science is an ideology, which
is constructed on the basis of a particular form of
methodology.

Methodologymethodology

broadly
refers

to

speaking,
sum

of

techniques of data collection, tools and

methods

of

analyzing

data

and

theoretical perspectives or orientations

that govern research.

More

specifically,

methodology

refers

to

perspectives that guide research and the logic of

enquiry.
Thus,scientific

investigation

is

frequently

presented as being based upon the following

methodological rules.

A methodology involves presenting

rules of procedure about matters such
as the collection of data and their
analysis.
The rules are impersonal, in that they
are meant to apply equally to all
researchers.
It assumed that any two researchers
who approach the same problem
should arrive at

identical results.
Thereby, it is hoped that individual bias is
excluded from the research process.
In this way, methodology attempts to
standardize the practice of social sciences
and to eliminate quirkiness/nonconformity.

Method(orderliness) - refers to the way

one applies the theoretical perspectives
to explain facts or data collected.
Or it refers to the combination of
various techniques along with the
procedural rules of carrying out
research. Example, observation, case
study, etc.

Technique- is an apparatus, verbal or mechanical,

used

for

eliciting

information

from

the

respondents.
It is the actual instrument such as questionnaire
and interview, which aid the collection of data.
However, methodologies, methods and techniques
are highly interrelated.

No data may be systematically collected without an

adequate knowledge of techniques of data collection.
Similarly, no explanation of data is possible if there is
no clearly understood method guiding the collection
of data. It is also true that perspectives or
methodologies are not possible to develop in
vacuum. We need data which need to be explained.

The need to explain certain data gives an impetus

to the development of a methodology.
Such is the interdependence of these concepts
that it is not easy to comprehend one without the
others. Generally, The entire research process is
guided by the methodology and carried out by the
help of methods and techniques.

If science as an ideology is a form of methodology

and within a general ideology of science we may
find various competing methodologies.
This is the reason why we use the words
methodologies and methods in stead of
methodology and method.

Despite science is said to be an ideology,

there is difference between the common
sense perception of ideology and science.
Very often, people take ideology to be
ones subjective opinion, and science to
be objective and factual.

The example of a subjective opinion may be given as, it

is an opinion that boys are socially more superior to
girls.
An important element that the social sciences share with
natural sciences is a respect for logical theories and for
disciplined empirical investigation.Social sciences, like
other natural sciences, share the necessity of being
logical and of being rooted in empirical research.

1.2 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL REALITY

Understanding social reality elaborates the ways
to make sense of the social world around us
through the image of social sciences.
There

are

different

understanding social reality.

approaches

for

1.2.1 Logic of enquiry in Social Research

To begin with, it is necessary to understand that the
philosophical foundations of the science of social
sciences began in the West with its roots in Europe or
in the early Greek philosophies.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was the first logician, who
gave primacy to the faculty of reasoning of the human
mind above what is handed down to us by tradition or
custom.

He put the most elementary form of logical enquiry

viz. a major premise, a minor premise and a
conclusion.
The line of argument is that if the two were correct
or based on facts, the conclusion would be correct
too.

For example, a major premise is that all

humans are mortal and a minor premise is

that David is a human; the conclusion is
would be that David is mortal.
This

form

of

reasoning

is

known

as

Aristotles theory of deductive reasoning as

opposed to inductive reasoning.

The historians and philosophers of the late

seventh and eighteenth century projected certain
basic premises regarding the truth of social
existence.
These were in the form of universal history,
holding a basic supposition that all societies are
evolved and have gone through various
transformations to be what they are today;
An idea of progress that things are going towards
better and the triumph of reason is the ultimate
goal of human kind.

All of us attach a special status to the notion of

scientific knowledge because it depicts the world
as it is rather than as anyone of us may wish it to
be.
In this sense scientific knowledge provides us the
possibility of gaining a true understanding of the
nature of the social and natural world.

This understanding is not based on opinion or

unproven faith.
We

can

find

the

earliest

development

of

such

understanding in the work of Auguste Comte (17981857).

Written in the nineteenth century, Comtes works reflect
his engagement with the methodology of scientific
thought.

He argued that, like scientists who studied

the natural world and discovered the nature
of laws determining the behaviour of matter
in the physical world, it was possible to
discover the laws which determined the
behaviour of people in the social world.

Comte said that social scientists could use the

methodology and insight of the natural sciences
as the model for the development of social
physics.

According to Comte, the aim of science is not

to explain why things came into existence or

the cause of their being.
He stated that the aim of science is the

explanation of how things related to one

another in terms of invariable and universal
laws.

In this sense, observable phenomena are the

main ingredients of positive science, which aims
to

establish

law-like

relations

between

phenomena through gathering factual knowledge.

Gathering of factual knowledge is

carried out through observation,
experimentation,
comparison
and
prediction.
The idea is that after discovering a
wide range of laws, it would be
possible to explain the laws in terms of
their relationship to each other.

Comte assumed that the social world is as

regular and objective as is the natural
world.
Comte, thus, considered the methodology
of the natural sciences the ideal way to
discover law governing the social world and
he advocated the development of a new
positive outlook, based on the methodology
of the natural sciences.

Hence, according to Comte, the task of social

science researchers is to discover the Laws of
development by:
i) systematic observation,
ii) collection of data or facts and
iii) development of theories to explain the facts.
Comtes first assumption was that societies pass
through a process of evaluation and their stages
of development are from the simple to the
complex.

Distinction between inductive

Deductive Forms of Logic

and

The deductive method takes a few axioms

or so-called true statements with the aim of
proving other true statements or theorems,
which logically emanate from them.

The inductive method, on the other hand, makes

many observations about nature, with the aim of
discovering a few but strong statements about
how nature works or about what are the laws and
theories that are at the back of how nature
appears to us.

In the deductive method, logic is the

main operating tool.
If a statement emanates logically from
the axioms, it must be true.
In the inductive method , observation
of nature is the main operating tool. If
an idea is in conflict with what occurs
in nature, the idea has to be given up
as useless.

Adherents

of

traditional

logic,

who

were

the

descendants of Aristotelian logic, became rivals of

those following the new inductive method of natural
sciences, with different notions of reasoning or logic.
Even if, science is inductive by definition, in the
sense that observations are the only valid evidence of
truth, the process of science can be deductive.

contd

Observation in Social Sciences

It is clear that unlike the observations conducted
in the natural sciences that depend only on the
senses of the observer, the observations in social
sciences need the participation of the observed.

Cond
While one can rely on the senses to see what
is happening, one needs to inquire from the
actors as to what is the meaning or their acts
for any explanation to take place.Let us take for
example the utter bewilderment a complete
outsider would face if taken to witness a
football match.

The meaningless actions (observably) of adult

men kicking a round object and running around
for no practical purpose and, worse, thousand of
spectators getting so emotionally charged at the
sight of such meaningless acts, would not appear
reasonable to any outsider and objective observer.

The observer may put forward the verdict of

collective insanity if not made familiar with the
meaning systems that prompt the actions as
well as a large amount of conceptual data as to:
What is a game? Why is it played? What is the
relationship between a game and national pride,
and so on and so forth.

contd
So it is with every act of observation of
society that we need to refer to more
generalized concepts and also meaning
systems of the actors.
This is not to say that one relies only on
explanations given by the actors but true
explanation in the social sciences would
then contextualize the observations, the

meanings and the actors frame of reference to

a larger and more generalized system of
concepts and relationships, to try to get at a
true meaning, truth or explanation.
Thus inductive data is contextualized by a
logical process or deduction.

contd
Social scientists have devised ways to
make observation more meaningful or
more scientific.
Social scientists interpret data or basic
observations made by anyone.

For example, in the eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries, travellers, missionaries and administrators
collected large parts of data, which are still used and
form the basis of much of social theory, especially
those accounts that could never be duplicated, as the
situations, societies and cultures depicted in them
have since disappeared.

contd
In the nineteenth century, the trend
was on a pure scientific methodology
or on nomothetic generalizations rather
than on ideographic explanations.


All explanations are of two types,
nomothetic and ideographic.
The former refers to generalized laws
and the latter to individual facts.
For example, the laws of evolution is
nomothetic and the specific events of
history is ideographic.

Since social science is a science of society, it

aspires

to

be

more

nomothetic

rather than

ideographic.
Thus, the attempts of early social scientists was to

find the laws that make society run and the

assumption was that society too has an objective
existence like all natural objects and it too follows
same laws or principles.

Contd
The study of society uses, on one hand, formal
theory,

with

assumptions,

concepts,

propositions and laws and in this sense is

similar to natural science, and as such it
explores

empirical

data,

practices

and

institutions and tries to find causal and

generalizable statements.

On the other hand, many social scientists have

argued that given the diversity and multiplicity
of the social world, it is not possible to develop
generalizable and causal explanations.

They hold that social sciences focus on

observation of social actions and
interaction helps to develop analyses of
various social contexts.
Irrespective of which perspective one
accepts, social theory thrives and survives
best when it is engaged with empirical
research and/or public issues.

Logical Understanding of Social Reality

Important characteristics of scientific enquiry into
social reality would include:
i) emphasis on relevant empirical source of data,
ii) the general line of demarcation between
observation and theory,
iii) the focus on logical consistency and deductive
coverage.

Contd
For understanding social reality, social
science research needs to discover
regularities, derived form underlying
causal properties of social phenomena.

What kind of generalizations or regularities

are we talking about?
A law of nature refers to a governing
regularity, that is, as per a particular law of
nature, there will always be generalization
of a particular kind of behaviour.
Phenomenal
or
phenomenological
regularities refer to common features of
social entities and their effects on individual
agency.

 For example, it has been observed that land-tenure

systems with a particular structure create common
incentives for individuals wherever they are implemented;
It is then regularity of these systems that they have
common

features;

improvements.

like

underinvestment

in

capital

Since social reality is highly diverse

and constantly experiencing crosscutting varieties of causation, it is
possible only to produce scientifically
valid knowledge in terms of exceptionladen phenomenal regularities and the
highly qualified regularities is the one
that derive from institutional-logic
analyses.

In methodological terms, in the social

sciences, we need to be aware of the
scope of the nature of our subject
matter.

1.2.2 Empirical Approach

Empirical approach refers to the methodology of
collecting facts through observation and other
first hand methods of data collection.
There is however, difference of opinion and
method in whether one relies on the data collected
only by a particular method designated as
scientific or on data collected by any lay parson.

From the notion that the collection of data

must be done without any subjective
understanding, preconceived notions or
prejudices came up the dictum that the
scientist
must
remain
ethically
and
emotionally neutral.
The rule of cultural relativism is the outcome
of such a mind set.
One must accept that whatever does not
belong to ones own culture is not wrong or
strange.

 The principle of getting over ethnocentrism, or regarding

only ones own conceptions and values as proper, is
something that is taught to all students of the social
sciences but is the most difficult to overcome.
There is also the question of subjectivity as to what extent
we can remain objective as observers when something that
we see evokes intense emotions in us as human beings.

In the social sciences the question has

still not been resolved completely but
certainly many social scientists have
abandoned the stand of neutrality and
you will find many scholars activists
who consider it ethically wrong to
remain neutral and emotionless when
dealing with human situations.

There is a recognition among such scholars

that we can set up some universal criteria
such as universal concept of human rights to
intervene in situations that we enter as
observers.
Sometimes the entry may be for the specific
purpose of intervention as in development
studies or when social scientists are called in
as advisors and consultants.
But the debate whether to intervene or not to
intervene is never-ending.

Difference between Common Sense

and Science
If in the ultimate analysis what we need to relay
upon is our sense perception of the social, the
major question is how to exercise the use of the
sensory with the caution that no ideas should be
formed independent of the sensory perceptions.
This is the fundamental difference between
common sense and science, the common sense
views relay on perceptions formed not necessarily
with reference to scientific methods of causality.

Science gives more attention to underlying

causality rather than
to
superficial
resemblances or lack of resemblances.
Scientific approaches use theories to
explain
facts
and
propositions,
or
hypotheses are tested by reference to new
facts that either support or refute theories.
Generally, science is a way of generating
and testing the truth of statements about
events in the world of human experience.

 It is for the scientist to look beyond individual manifestations

to identify and classify phenomena.
Scientific methods deliberately and systematically seek to
annihilate the individual scientists standpoint.
We would like to be able to say of every statement of scientific
information (observation, empirical generalization, theory,
hypothesis, or decision to accept or reject a hypothesis) that
it represents an unbiased image of the world.

Managing Diversities in Social Research

While collecting data for social science research,
we need to recognize that diversities have to be
both accepted and also explained in terms of the
meanings they express.
Social science observations are time consuming
and require painstaking sincerity in recording
data.
There is no short cut if one wants to get a real
understanding of social phenomena, for all such
phenomena are complex and have multiple
causations and effects.

When explanations in the social sciences

become problematic, one has to accept
rather than ignore or reject them.
Moreover the search for a perfect
explanation is also illusory and one has to
accept that human beings are creative and
have freedom of expression.
This is again not to say that no regularities
can be observed or no generalizations can
be made, which otherwise there would be no
social science.

The social scientists often tread a delicate balance

between regularities that are real and those that
one would wish to impress upon ones data.
This is the classic duality between structure and
action and action that has to be faced in the social
sciences.
It is argued that the wider the applicability of or
generalizations, the more we lose out on ground
level explanations of particular events.
The general often remains an essential condition
for explanation of the specific.

There is still another problem that empirical

observations and interpretations have to deal with.
For example, what do we do when certain things
that seem to lie beyond our own perceptions appear
to be well within the sensory perceptions of others,
or at least that is what they claim?
How do we interpret it when we are told in the field
by our informants that they see sprits on a regular
basis or they converse with the dead as they
converse with living or that they have spouses and
children in the other world with whom they
communicate all the time?

If one should follow the scientific rationality

of relying on ones senses, then the only
way to explain this would be either say that
everyone in the culture is suffering from
hallucinations or is speaking lies.
Another way to explain this could be that
people of different cultures have different
cognitive abilities and can actually see
things that we cannot.
However, there is still limit to our credibility.

 Considering the various problems encountered

in trying to make sense of the data collected, we
keep coming back to the sanctity of the term
empirical reality, while dealing with the terms of
society

1.2.3 Diverse Logic of Theory Building

Formulations and methodological rigor in
empirical research go hand in hand and do not in
any way pose any problem of ascendance of one
over the other.

Your logic of theory building is your asset to carry

out a useful empirical investigation and vice versa,
a methodologically sound social research leads
to growth of verifiable and valid outcome in terms
of their theoretical significance.
The process of theory building deals with
hypothesis, description and experimentation.
Theory refers to knowledge arranged so that the
facts are subsumed under general principles.

The
difference
between
commonsensical
knowledge and scientific knowledge is that the
latter is systematized and classified.
Unlike commonsensical knowledge that satisfies
with the desired effects, scientific knowledge looks
into the causes of a phenomenon.
It is the task of theory to organize such causal
relationships into observable repetitive or
classifiable regularities so that one can make
general observations that encompass diverse but
related phenomena and explain them by not
individual and specific relationships only but
higher and abstracted general relationships.

Establishing the correct causal relationship between

facts is followed by bringing together diverse facts
within a single framework of causality; the process
by which this is done is called theory building for
the resulting relationship is often called a theory.
There are three properties of theory, viz.
i) explanation,
ii) prediction and
iii) verification.
The
systematically
interrelated
sociological
propositions, which hold in different contexts,
comprise theories.

You can put to test each of these propositions as

to how well it conforms to data and how well in
relation to each of these propositions account for
the outcomes in a given setting.
If such a prediction is possible, you can say that
the result has been explained in terms of known
propositions.
While verifying the sociological propositions, one
needs to look for a logical relationship as well as
empirical relationship.

Theory is an account of the world which goes

beyond what we can see and measure.
It embraces a set of interrelated definitions and
relationships that organizes our concepts of and
understanding of the empirical world in a
systematic way.
In this sense social theory needs to be abstract
and separable from the social practices that the
theory has addressed.
Such a theory needs to also focus on a specific
thematic arguments that runs through the set of
propositions providing them coherence and force.

i) Explanation the theory has to be logically

consistent and explanatory, that is, it needs to
have a thesis about social phenomena to account
for their form or existence.
Further the theory is to be general enough to
account for all instances of the phenomena it
proposes to explain.
Also the theory cannot be reduced to the
explanations
informants
or
participants
themselves provide to explain their behavior.

ii) Predictability - a theory needs to be

substantially valid, that is, it is to be consistent
with what is already known about the social world
by its participants and by the social scientists.
This means that is should be possible to link the
theory to other bodies of knowledge.
The best way to test the validity or truth of a
theory is to test its predictability.
The sciences by definition need to be predictive
on the basis of their theories.

In the natural or pure sciences, there is a set limit

on the probable range of failure of predictability of
a theory before it is rejected.
In the social sciences, theories rarely have the
capacity for predictability yet some degree of
ascertaining the truth of a situation has to be
assigned to a statement for it to take on the mantle
of a theory.
iii) Verifiable any theory should be provable by
any interested person in diverse contexts using
the same methodology on the basis of which that
theory was developed.

Propositions are always open to scrutiny and

continued research in a scientific manner means
that we keep testing earlier statements for their
validity.
This is why science is recognized as a neverending process. However, statements of absolute
validity, like two plus two is equal to four, is rarely
possible in the social sciences.
Concepts: Basic Elements of Theories
Concepts are nothing but shorthand versions of a
large range of phenomena that may be brought
under one heading to describe something.

As basic elements of theories, concepts are

developed through a process of definition.
Theories basically connect concepts to one
another in a logical manner.
Each concept is usually accomplished by a
standardized
description
called
its
definition.
In the natural sciences, such definitions are
very precise in social sciences however,
they may not be so.

Different disciplines of the social sciences

may not define the same concept to mean
the same thing.
That is why all scientific disciplines have
their own terminology of concepts popularly
known as the scientific jargons.
The concepts are abstractions that are not
made randomly but by a recording of
structural properties rigorously selected
from the visible traits exhibited by the
phenomenon under study.

Why theory is needed?

Fred N. Kerlinger defines theory as"a set of interrelated
constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that presents a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among
variables
public organizations are social entities that are goal-oriented; are
designed as deliberately structured and coordinated activity
systems, and are linked to the external environment (Daft, 2004).

contd
The need for theory lies in that theories
help us to put order in a bewildering
range of phenomena that might seem
unrelated.
A theory provides a means for dealing
with reality in terms of providing neat
and compact explanations that can be
set
into
a
known
explanatory
framework.

With the help of theory, we may

summarize in terms of a few principles
the nature of relationships between
them.
The more generalized a theory, the
wider is its application, but the further
away it from actual situations.

Theory is most inclusive and basic in the sense

that it aims to isolate a single set of principles,
which are the foundation for social life.
Through these principles, you can explain every
social phenomenon.

Evolutionary theory for example makes

some broad generalizations regarding the
nature

of

society

and

the

nature

of

transformations that one expects to see.The

second task of theory, apart from the
explaining

reality,

is

to

hypothesis that can be tested.

generate

1.3 WHY RESEARCH IS NEEDED?

Research is needed because there are a
number questions we raise or problems
to be addressed.

 Even at times when we think that we

know the answer to our question, or
we think that it can be answered
through common sense,
until we
have subjected our problem to
rigorous scientific scrutiny, our
'knowledge' remains little more than
guesswork or at best, intuition.

Man has come to know the miracles of the social and

natural environments through research, without which

there would have been no change in human history.
In fact, without trustworthy and tested published

research available to all of us, we would be locked in

the opinions of the moment, either prisoners of what
we alone experience or dupes(tricked)to everything we
hear.

Of course, we all want to believe that

our opinions are sound; yet mistaken
ideas, even dangerous ones, flourish
because too many people accept to
many opinions not very good evidence.

The basic purpose of social science research is to

make sense of what goes around us in our own
society and in a society other than our own so that
there is better understanding of each other within
a society and across societies.

In this context, it could be said that the

aim of social science research is to
arrive at a better world where we
understand each other and do not
suffer the consequences of conflicts
that may be avoided or resolved on the
basis of our understanding of the
social and natural world around us.

Researchers are engaged in research in their

chosen subject with the aim of contributing to the
body of existing knowledge on that subject.
Researchers in public administration for example
need to generate new knowledge through research
to guide theory development, influence the
practices and even the decisions of public
managers and policy makers based on empirical
evidence.

Public
may

administration
raise

how,

why

professionals
and

what

questions to find answers to practical

problems.

Fore example:
1.How a a civil service reform program has
been implemented?
2.To what extent it has been successful in
achieving its objectives?
3.What do citizens think about the policy or
quality of services?

4. What are the major bottlenecks for the

successful implementation of the
program?
5.What courses of actions should be
addressed in order to improve the pace
of implementing the program?

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Pause for a moment, think of the word
'research' what images come into your
mind?
Don't try to define it, just think about what
it means to you.

 Write down a few ideas below. It may

mean different things like:
i. To search or investigate exhaustively
ii. Gathering,
processing
and
interpreting data, then intelligently
and cogently communicating the
results in a report that describes what
was discovered new.

iii. Studying something in a planned manner

and
can replicate

reporting it so that other inquiries

the process if they choose.
iv.Studious(careful&
painstaking)enquiry
examination; especially:

or

investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery

and interpretation of facts;
revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new
facts;
or practical application of such new or revised theories.
v. Research is a systemic investigation towards increasing
the sum of knowledge.

VI. Research in common parlance refers

to a search for knowledge. One can
also define research as a scientific and
systematic
search
for
pertinent
information on a specific topic. In fact,
research is an art of scientific
investigation.

vii. Research refers to a systematic study of ones

chosen subject for arriving at both new and valid
conclusions.
On the bases of the above definitions we may
conclude that research refers to the systematic
methods consisting of:

 Articulating

problem,

formulating

hypothesis (if needed);

Collecting and analyzing data; and
Arriving at certain conclusions either in the

form of solutions for the problem or certain

generalizations
formulation.

for

some

theoretical

1.4

TYPES OF RESEARCH

There are several types of research, which can be

chosen based on the subject of enquiry.
However, it should be noted that some of them
work better in combination.
Their placement as specific types may give the
impression that each type is distinct entity not
compatible with another type.

However, based on the nature of the

subject and purpose of the research,
two or more methods of research can
be combined in a single research.

 The following are some of the major

research types arranged in pairs:
i. Basic and applied
ii. Descriptive and analytical
iii. Empirical and exploratory
iv. Explanatory (causal) and longitudinal

1. Basic (fundamental or pure) and applied research

Basic/pure research concerns the principles or

laws or fundamental rules and aims the quest for

achieving knowledge for its sake.
It

is

concerned

with

the

development

of

theoretical frame for a particular phenomenon for

which so far no generalized principles are
available.

Basic research is directed towards

finding information that have a broad
base of application and thus, adds to
the already existing organized body of
knowledge.

Applied

Research-

while

pure/basic

research

discovers principles and laws, applied research

discovers ways of applying them to solve social
problems.
In all organizations, administrators are often
demanded to find solutions to various problems
and make appropriate decisions.

In this kind of situations they are required to

undertake applied research, which basically
aims

at

finding

solutions

for

pressing

practical problems.
Evaluation

of

the

political,

social

and

economic impacts on a particular institution

is an example of applied research.

2.

Descriptive and analytical

Descriptive research- describes a social situation,

event, systems, structures etc.
Its purpose is to describe the state of affair as it is.
It gives answer to questions like who, what, when
and where the problem occurred.

The main characteristics of this research is

that

researchers

have

no

control

over

variables; they can describe only what has

happened or is happening.
Descriptive research usually uses a survey

method to accurately and precisely describe

the research population.

Analytical research- aims at critical evaluation of

the given phenomenon or problems expressed in
facts, figures and narrative information.
The researcher looks beyond the facts and figures
already collected; and assumes that behind the
accumulated data there is something more
important and revealing than the facts and figures.

The analyst needs to have a thorough

knowledge of the data, because without
penetrating and insightful knowledge,
analysis is worthless.

3. Empirical and exploratory research

Empirical research-relies on experiences and
observations.
It is a data-based research to come up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by
further observation or experiment.

In this research, developing a working

hypothesis

and

setting

up

an

experiment is mandatory.
Such a research is appropriate when
proof is sought that certain variables
affect other variables in some way.

Exploratory researchit is conducted with a view to clarify

and define the existence and nature of
a problem.
It provides the basic qualitative and
quantitative information relating to the
subject matter of the study.

 There are three interrelated activities:

A) Diagnosing a situation
B) Scanning the alternatives
C) Discovering new ideas
Exploratory studies are appropriate for persistent

social phenomena like deficiencies in the functioning

of educational systems, corruption among political
elite, rural poverty etc.

4. Explanatory (causal) and longitudinal

Explanatory

(causal)

research-

explains

the

causes of social phenomena.

The aim is to establish a relationship between
variables, i.e. how one is the cause of the other, or
how when one variable occurs the other will also
occur.

It seeks explanations of observed

phenomena, problems, or behaviors.
While descriptive research examines the
what, where, and when of a phenomenon,
explanatory research seeks answers to
why and how types of questions. It
attempts to connect the dots in research,
by identifying causal factors and outcomes
of the target phenomenon.

The relationship between drug abuse and

lack of family control.
Generally explanatory (causal) research is
concerned with the why of factors like a
research on violence against women would
be interested in why men commit violence?

Examples include understanding the reasons

behind adolescent crime or gang violence, with
the goal of prescribing strategies to overcome
such societal ailments. Most academic or
doctoral research belongs to the explanation
category.

Longitudinal research- involves the study of

a problem or the same body of phenomenon
over a period of time.
For example, prevalence of AIDS among
males and females in a particular city, town
or country in the period 1990-2000.

1.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SOCIAL

SCIENCE RESEARCH
So far, scientists in social science methodologies
have preached and urged

you to build a

responsible social contract with readers of your

research report, to create an ethos that will lead
them to:

 Trust you
Guard against your inevitable biases in collecting
and reporting evidence
Avoid plagiarism

Such are the most important elements of

ethical and moral considerations in social
science research.

As researchers you are responsible for both those

who rely on your research and to those on whose
research you relay.
Conceptually

research

ethics

refers

to

the

application of moral standards to decisions made

in the planning, conducting, and reporting the
results.

According

to

Mitchell,

the

four

practical ethical principles include:

1.

Truthfulness-

it

is

unethical

for

researchers to purposefully lie, deceive

or in any way employ fraud.

Deliberately misrepresenting the purpose of

a

study,

inflating

or

understating

the

findings of a research project are examples

of

research

that

fails

truthfulness principles.

to

meet

the

2.Thoroughness-means
thorough

or

methodologically

undertaking

scientific

research by following all the necessary

steps in a study.It means also that all
results and findings are reported- both
good and bad news.

3.Objectivity- refers to the need for the

researcher to remain objective and impartial

throughout all aspects of

the

study.The

researcher should avoid interjections of

personal feelings or bias in the research
design.

4. Relevance- means that research should never be

done because a researcher wants to.
The research should be understandable to people
and useful.
If one fails to justify the relevance of the research
he/she is undertaking, he/she is wasting the time
of respondents, which is unethical.

Generally, ethical researchers should not:

Plagiarize or claim credit for the results of
others
Misreport sources or invent results.
Submit data whose accuracy they have
reason to question, unless they raise the
questions.
Distort opposing views.
Destroy or conceal sources and data
important for those who follow.

II. RESEARCH DESIGN

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Carrying out a research project is a
complex and lengthy activity.
It is agreed with the fact that the initial
stage of a research project often proves to
be

the

hardest

experienced ones.

part

of

all-

even

to

A research project needs to incorporate a

coherent

body

of

activities,

resulting

in

meaningful and sound insights.

The

starting-up

problems

can

cause

great

uncertainty, both to those carrying out the project

and their supervisors, and consequently become
detrimental to the quality of the research.

2.2. RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A proposal/design is a kind of blueprint that
researchers prepare before actually carrying out
research.
It is a systematically prepared outline stating the
manner in which you plan to carry
research.

out your

2.2.1 IDENTIFYING RESEARCH AREA AND

DEVELOPING INTEREST
Research is not something that a researcher goes
into accidentally.
It, particularly academic research, requires a
thorough thinking and decision to deal with a
particular subject matter.

Hence, the researcher need to identify the

research area through reading as well
develop interest in specific subject matter.
Students

have

ample

opportunity

to

identify and develop interests during the

period in which they take different courses.

You may find that some courses, and may be even

some sections of these courses interested you
more than others.
If you have developed a strong personal research
interest, this is very fortunate, and you would do
well to build on it.

The best research is nearly based on a

high enthusiasm for the subject.
You should never let yourself be led
into a research area by someone elses
enthusiasm if that issue has no appeal
for you.

An important issue to note at this juncture

is that it is very easy to get caught up in
some area of study that seems to be
currently fashionable or is for some reason
enjoying some momentary prestige.

But this research is going to be hard

work- you may occasionally wish you
would never got involved in it at alland if you are not personally interested
in

your

results,

you

impossible to carry on.

may

find

it

2.2.2

SELECTING A TOPIC

From an interest we move to a researchable topic.

Of course, research topics are selected from
course readings that you found particularly exiting
or would like to explore in more depth.
However, at the beginning, it is often found hard to
find a focused enough.

You

must

not

only

choose

an

interesting topic that you can bear to

live with for several months or years,
but you must also focus your interest
sharply within that topic.

Alternatively, as another source of research topic,

you also have your own professional interests and

experience to draw on.
You may already be working on problem within the

broad area of your discipline that you would like to

investigate more rigorously, with some of the
techniques and within the theoretical paradigms
that you have met in your studies.

It may be even true that you have

already available data necessary to do
the research or at least the means of
getting hold of such information.

Important things in selecting topic:

1. Start with what interests you most deeply
because nothing contributes the quality of
your work more than your commitment to it.
2. Start by listing two or three interests that
you would like to explore.

3. Look for sources in the libraries before

you decide to choose one because you
may choose an interesting topic that
does not have enough sources. Your
research

should

be

supported

sufficient relevant material.

by

4. Try to have more specific topic to the extent

that you can give a short answer when
someone asks you what you are working
on.
2.2.3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH
PROPOSAL/DESIGN
Research proposal/design is a series of
advanced decisions that, taken together,
comprise a master plan or model for the
conduct of an investigation.

b
1. The Research Problem/Statement- the researcher
has to clearly define the problem to be researched.
It should not be vague.
A research problem refers to some enquiry, which
a researcher undertakes in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain an explanation of the same.

The two steps in this regard include

understanding
thoroughly

and

the
rephrasing

problems
it

into

meaningful terms from the analytical

point of view.

Formulating or defining a research problem

is an important step in the research process
and a clearly stated problem is research half
done.

2.The
Research
Questionsthe
researcher need to clearly state the
research questions in the light of the
problems, topic and the theoretical
foundations on which it rests.
The research questions should be
clear as much as possible that give
clear guide to data collection and
analysis processes.

The common mistake that most researchers make is

that once they have chosen the topic, they rush to a
data dump: they go straight to searching out
sources.
Serious researchers however, do not gather and
report data for their own sake, but to support the
answer to a question that they (and they hope their
readers) think is worth asking.

Hence, to find out what is not known

about the topic through systematic
questions is an important job of a
researcher.
You

need

to

systematically

analytical questions such as:

ask

The compositions of the topic, i.e. what are

the different parts of the topic and how do
they relate to one another? How the topic is
part of a larger system?
The value of the topic, i.e, what values the
topic add in terms of contributing to existing
knowledge and as well its implications for
practical applicability.
The history of the topic, i.e. how and why the
topic changed through time; how have
different stories developed differently?

3. Research Objectives specific and concrete objectives

which appear to be achievable should be developed as per
the requirements of the research question.
Research objectives form the basis for judging the
remainder of the proposal.

It sets the stage for showing how one

intends to solve or contribute to the
problem, which has been set.
Research objective grows out of the
previous research by citing goals that go
beyond
what
has
already
been
accomplished, by opening new territory,
redoing a study in a new and better way,
or possibly replicating an important study
to ascertain the generality of its findings.

Make sure that the methodology section

adequately encompass all of the objectives.
Common Errors in formulating objectives:
i. Vague generalities rather than clear-cut criteria
against which the rest of the project can be
judged.
ii. Not setting them forth clearly in priority order,
imbedding them, usually by implication rather than
explicit statement.
iii. The tendency to include objective statements
that are not included in the scope of the research.

4. The Research Hypothesis- it is a tentative

assumption made in order to test its logical or
empirical consequences. It could also be defined as
a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified
phenomena either asserted merely as provisional
conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted
as highly probable in the light of established facts.

Hypothesis should be related to a

theoretical base and should be used
whenever
prediction.

there

is

basis

for

Hypothesis should be clear and precise and

capable of being tested.
Hypothesis needs to explain what it claims to
explain and should have empirical reverence.
A hypothesis may have variables and it my be
looking for the nature of the relationship between
the variables.

Hence, you need to make distinctions

between dependent and independent
variables.
The variable that a researcher wants to
explain is dependent variable while the
variable expected to explain the change
in the dependent variable is called
independent
variable,
example
consumption and income.

Variables

can

have

three

types

of

relationships:
i.Positive relationship, i.e. an increase in one
variable leads to an increase in another.
ii. Negative relationships, i.e, an increase in one
variable leads to a decrease in the other.

iii.

Zero relationship, no significant relationship

between two variables.

5.Theoretical Orientation of the Research
A research proposal/design needs to have a
clearly spelt out methodology, methods and tools.
Theoretical/methodological

and

philosophical

orientations govern the choice of methods.

The research design would elucidate

the
basis

methodological
of

research

researcher
methods
collection.

and

identify
and

theoretical

and

help

the

appropriate

techniques

of

data

For example, if you are empiricist, you would rely

on observational methods and techniques of data
collection.
If you are rationalist, you would employ various
kinds

of

interviews

to

unravel

mathematical model of social reality.

the

logico-

6. Scope/Universe and Unit of the Research

Before starting with data collection you have
to identify the universe and the unit of study.
The identification of the universe implies
demarcation of the physical area and social
unit of study.

The universe consists of the population within a

well-defined area where the study is to be
conducted.
Within the broad universe further specification of
the possible units that could be studied makes up
the actual or effective universe.

7. Significance of the study

This entails the contribution of the research
to theoretical development and/or to solve
practical problems by introducing new ideas
or working methods to organizational, local,
regional, national or international contexts.

2.3APPROACHES
DESIGN

TO

RESRARCH

There are two broad approaches to social

sciences
research,
viz.
qualitative
and
quantitative.
The most important factor that determine the
selection of qualitative or quantitative method is
the nature of the problem at hand.
That means the problem selects the method, and
not vice versa.

For example, a researcher studying mental illness

may adopt a qualitative approach through a strategy
of

interviewing

patients,

their

families,

professionals responsible for their treatment.

and

2.3.1Qualitative Approach
Qualitative research methods such as
case

studies,

descriptive

comparative

studies,

and

studies,

explanatory

studies are based on the paradigm of

social constructionism and interpretation.

It is characterized by an emphasis on
describing, understanding, explaining
complex phenomena- on studying, for
example, the relationships, patterns
and configurations among factors; or
the context in which activities occur.

 The focus is on understanding the full-multi-dimensional,

dynamic picture of the subject of study.
This enables us to understand the subtle aspects of social
relations.
It is particularly useful when one is interested in probing a
specific question in depth, its meaning and their different
interpretations.

Qualitative approach to research is

widely applicable to many social
science fields such as sociology,
psychology,
cultural
studies,
education, and public administration.
In the social sciences, there is, in the
broadest sense, hardly any area of
research in which it is not at least
partially used.

Qualitative research is a tradition in social science

that basically depends on watching people in their
territory and interacting with them on their own
terms, in their own language.
In other words, qualitative research claims to
describe life worlds from the inside out from the
point of view the people who participate.

By so doing it seeks to contribute to a

better understanding of social realities
and to draw attention to processes,
meaning patterns and structural
features.
It is thus, seen to be naturalistic,
ethnographic and participatory in its
approach.

 The four tendencies of qualitative research

1. Emphasis to the oral, i.e. carrying out research
through the use of language, narratives and
communication.
2. Emphasis to the particular, i.e. to concentrate on
specific, concrete problems which arise in
specific situations rather than concentrating on
abstract, universal questions
3. Emphasis to the local, i.e. studying systems of
knowledge, practices and experiences in their
local context, instead of assuming and
attempting to test their universal validity.

4. Emphasis to timely, i.e. locating problems and

identifying solutions in their historical context
and describing and explaining them accordingly.
Generally, qualitative research is rooted in
understanding lived experiences as expressed
and articulated by people themselves.
It aims at understanding the issues at hand
without resorting to cosmetic generalizations
and it accounts for the socio-historical context of
behavior.

2.3.2

Quantitative Approach

Quantitative social research uses quantitative

methods such as sampling, cross-sectional, time
series, and experimental methods.
These methods choose a hypothetico-deductive
(use of hypothesis testing) approach to construct
social reality.

In this way, quantitative research is

based on a critical interpretation of
empirical data.
Quantitative research uses
mathematical models and statistical
techniques.

Mathematical models/formula help to draw logical

relationship between variables.
Whereas statistics is a science of organizing,
summarizing and describing quantifiable data, and
the

methods

of

drawing

generalizing upon them.

inferences

and

Sampling methods, measure of central

tendency, measure of dispersion and
variability,

testing

of

hypothesis,

correlation and regression are the

most common statistical techniques in
social science research.

Complementarities between
quantitative methods.

qualitative

The

to

two

approaches

seem

be

used

and
in

opposition.
However, the frontier between the two does not
need to be quite impenetrable.

They are more and more frequently

being linked together for the purpose
of joint design.
For example, qualitative research can
compliment hard data on patients with
more subjective views such as
perceptions of the patients about the
degree of satisfaction with the
treatment.

2.4Types of research design

There are different research design methods that social
scientists use.
We limit our discussions to experimental and survey for
quantitative approach and case study and descriptive for
qualitative approach.

2.4.1 Experimental design

Experimental designs are characterized
by comparing two or more groups, at
least one of which is experimental and
the other is control group.
When the nature of the research
requires trial of the proposed course of
action or testing of hypothesis, the
researcher selects experimental design.

 Experimental

design

is

common

in

the

biological

sciences, but social researchers have also started to use

it when the effects of a proposed course of action can be
observed (measured) objectively and distinguished from
the effects of extraneous variables.
For example, say you are interested in the cultivation
methods of modern farming.

You wanted to find out what effects the

various cultivation methods have in
terms of yield, environmental burden
and bio-diversity.
In such a case you can conduct
experiment on the basis of test fields
where crops are cultivated in different
conditions:
1.You may carry out the experiment by
your own in which you control every
thing.

2. Or you may decide to get farmers interested in

the project and persuade them to work according
to specific cultivation methods and to adhere
strictly to some rules of behavior formulated by
you, which are important for the research.
In this case you will be vesting the farmers
regularly to carry out various measurements and
to interview them (qualitative information).
All those involved will obtain a clear picture of
the effects of the various cultivation methods.

2.4.2

Survey design

Survey research is basically a method of gathering

information from a population on a given subject.
Surveys serve the purpose of counting and
classifying sets of events/opinions/and other
items.

Survey research is popularly identified

by opinion polls and market research
such as customer satisfactions about a
product or service.
Survey method provides researchers a
way to manage obtaining the data from
large and complex societies.

Quantification involved in surveys lends more

reliability and accuracy to a large quantum of
information.
Survey research could be census or sample
based.
In the first case the whole population is covered
for information.

In the second case only a portion of the

population is covered to arrive at an

understanding of the whole.
The common type of survey is the sample

based since covering the whole population

is very lengthy and time consuming.

Survey research is typically carried out with the

help of a questionnaire or interview-schedule.
Hence, preparing a questionnaire or interview
schedule is the most important step.
Once the data have been collected, the
researchers have to codify and process the data in
a manner that it becomes presentable in tabular
form and charts.
It should also become accessible for use for
statistical treatment that would tell us about the
different qualities of the data.

2.4.3 Case study

Case study research method is an empirical

enquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon within its real-life context, when the
boundaries between phenomenon and context are
not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources
of evidence are used.
Case study is an ideal qualitative method when a
holistic, in-depth investigation is needed.
Case study is not a sampling research, because
each individual case study consists of a whole
study, in which facts are gathered from various
sources and conclusions drawn on those facts.

Selecting cases must be done carefully so as to

maximize what can be learned in the period of time
available for the study.
It involves systematically gathering enough
information about a particular person, social
setting, event, or group to permit the researcher to
effectively understand how it operates or functions.
Case studies are designed to bring out the details
from the view point of the participants by using
multiple sources of data through data collection
techniques.

 Hence, case study is not a data gathering

technique, but a methodological approach that
incorporates a number of data gathering
techniques such as life histories, documents,
oral histories, in-depth interview, and participant
observation.
Case studies are multi-perspective analysis, i.e.
the researcher considers not just the voice and
perspectives of few actors, but also of the
relevant groups of actors and the interaction
between them.
That is why case study is known as triangulated
research method.

 Triangulation may occur among others:

1. Data source triangulation- when the researcher looks for
the data to remain the same in different sources
2. Instrument triangulation when the researcher uses two
or more instruments of data collection.
The unit of analysis is a critical factor in the case study.
It can be rather pointed in its focus, or can approach a
broad view of life and society.
Case studies however, tend to be selective, focusing on
one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding
the system being examined.
Another important point is that case study could be
single-case or multiple-cases depending on the interest
and objectives of the researcher.

Case study could be applied for different

purposes, which include at least the following;
1. To explain complex causal links in real-life
interventions
2. To describe the real-life context in which the
intervention has occurred
3. To describe the intervention
4. To explore those situations in which the
intervention being evaluated has no clear set of
outcomes.

2..4.4Descriptive
Descriptive designs are widely used by
administrators and policy analysts.
They provide opportunity for a wealth of
information that is easy to understand and
interpret.
Descriptive designs are preferred to answer
research questions such as:
How much or how many?
How efficient and effective?
How adequate?
They are always used in opportunity-oriented
research and performance feedback research.

The several purposes of these types of research

include:
Perceiving difficulties and opportunities
Identifying significant problems
Determining what problems are to be solved
Defining decisions tentatively
Selecting best alternative courses of action
Defining decisions operationally
All these create opportunity to produce data for
planning, monitoring and evaluating.

2.5PLANNING THE RESEARCH

So far we have discussed the largest part of the
research design, which basically give answers to what
(research objectives and issues) and how (the
research method and material needed).
However, the issue of when has not yet been dealt
with.
Planning a research project is understood to mean
(making) an overview of:
The activities to be carried out,
The intermediate products and end products produced by
these activities, and
The order and periods in which the activities are to be carried
out.

In the design process, the planning stage, for the

first time, gives an opportunity to have an
overview of all activities that are to be carried out
in the research project.
In particular, it refers to reviewing the research
questions that must be answered and the choices
made with respect to the research material and the
research method to be followed.
Such processes may identify and suggest an
adjustment to the design.
This shows that planning is not only a mechanism
of controlling future activities but also forms an
important element of the design processes.

An important contribution to the function of a

research plan is the compilation of a table of
contents for the final report.
As early as in the design stage, you need to
decide on the broad outline of the research report.
The most important feature of this activity is the
search for significant and especially brief titles for
the various chapters and, possibly sections.
Titles may change in the course of the reseach
and thinking about them makes you constantly
consider the critical points of your research
project.

III. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Collecting the necessary data for a study is an important
step next to the research design.
Researchers collect not every data but data that have to
answer the research question.
Data are generally categorized into two: primary and
secondary data.
3.1
Primary and secondary data
Primary data are those collected by the researchers from
original sources/unpublished sources.
Or data that have been observed and recorded by the
researchers for the first time, to their knowledge.

 There are different sources of primary data, which among

others include:
Documentation- include letters, memoranda, agendas,
study reports and the like.
Archival records- includes service records, maps, charts,
lists of names, survey data, and even personal records
such as diaries.
Interviews- include information collected through openended and structured questions.
Direct observation-this occurs when the researcher makes
a site visit to gather data.
Non-participant vs. participant observation
Non-participant observation- the researcher does not
participate in the events being studied.

 Participant observation-is unique mode of observation in

which the researcher may actually participate in the events
being studied.
It is used in studies of neighborhood or organization, and
frequently in anthropological studies.
Physical artifacts-could be any physical evidence that
might be gathered during a field visit, which may include
tools, art works, etc.
Secondary data are those gathered from the published
sources.
Statistical reports of the CSA, revenue generation data
published by the MoR and annual budgets published by
MoFED are good examples of secondary data.

 Not only quantitative but also qualitative data could be

collected from secondary sources, i.e. from research
results undertaken by others.
Most research on past events has to rely on secondary
sources to a large extent.
However, the information gathered from secondary
sources may not meet specific needs in many cases.
Further, we can not even assess the accuracy of the
information provided by secondary sources as we
know little about the conditions under which the previous
research took place.
Secondary information might be lost and sometimes it
might be obsolete even before it is available in the
published format.

3.2
Date collection techniques
3.2.1 Quantitative data collection
The are different techniques of collecting quantitative data.
Interview, survey questionnaire, and survey of statistical
reports and organizational documents are the most
commonly used tools of quantitative data collection.
Interview for quantitative data seek for facts in stead of
opinions.
Identifying a data base such as WB data base is another
important mechanism to find quantitative data.
However, identifying the data base is only half the battle.

 The researcher must determine whether he/she can access

it and he/she must review its documentation.
3.2.2 Qualitative data collection
In the case of qualitative data, there are different
techniques of collection, which include, focus group
discussion, key informant interview, and observations.
Unlike quantitative data collection, interviews and other
tools in qualitative data collection primarily focus on
gathering the opinions and underlying understanding of
the respondents about a social phenomenon.
3.2.3 Mixed Method
We discussed already that quantitative and qualitative
research methods are complementary.

 And so also are the data collection techniques where a

researcher may adopt both techniques to gather different
information.
Brief overview of some of the techniques
1. Interviews is a two way process in which both the
interviewer and the respondent have a mutual view of each
other, engage in an interactive situation, and communicate
ideas.
It is an effective tool of collecting information for certain
types of assumptions, particularly when investigators are
interested in understanding the perceptions of participants
or learning how participants come to attach certain
meanings to phenomena or events.

Interviews are generally classified into three types:

i. structured interview- involves formally structured
schedule on interview questions.
They are designed to elicit information using a set
of predetermined questions in which responses are
expected to be comparable.
ii. Unstructured interview- no formal schedule of
questions.
In stead, interviewers develop some guiding
question and follow up probes appropriate to the
given situation and the central purpose of the
investigation.

iii.
Semi-structured
interviewinvolves
implementation of a number of predetermined
questions.
Interviewees are asked in a systematic and
consistent order but interviewers are allowed to
digress to probe far beyond the answers to their
prepared and standardized questions.
Stages of an interview
It is very relevant to understand the interview
processes.
A.
Introduction- beginning with introduction and
entry.

The interviewer should be prepared for reactions

such as:
how did you pick me up?
What good would come out of this?
I dont know about this.
B.
The main part of the interview- involves asking
questions and recording answers in legible writing.
C. The exit stage- thank the respondent and leave.
The interviewer however, should immediately go to
a private place to edit and record details while they
are still fresh in mind.

2. Questionnaire- refers to a set of questions.

Of course interview uses questions to which respondents
are asked to replay.
However, questionnaire could be mailed or sent through
internet e-mail).
Questionnaire cold be structured (closed questions),
unstructured (open-ended) questions and semi-structured (
both closed and open-ended) questions.
Some guidelines in designing a good questionnaire
A good questionnaire is clear, unambiguous and uniformly
workable.
Two principles in designing a good questionnaire are:
avoid confusion and keep respondents perspective in
mind.
Furthermore, questionnaire construction is an art: requires
skill, practice, patience and creativity.

 The following are among important guidelines:

A. Introduction- description for the purpose of the study and
instructions for responding to the questionnaire and
promise of confidentiality
B. Order of questions- from simple to complex
C. Form of question determine whether structured,
unstructured or semi-structured questions are preferred to
the subject matter.
D. Clarity- make sure that respondents can understand the
questions.
E. Cross-questions- ask questions in different ways to see that
respondents answer in the same way.
F. Pre-test- administer the questionnaire in small sample and
check for the above considerations.

3. Focus group discussions- are group discussions

organized to explore a specific set of issues such as
peoples views and experiences of contraception, drinks,
participation in local issues, etc.
The group is focused in the sense that it involves bringing
different people who may not know each other to
undertake some kind of collective activity- such as
debating on a particular set of questions.
Focus group is known for the interaction of members in
explaining or describing a social phenomenon.
4. Direct observation- a tool where the researcher directly
observes the social phenomenon or event and gathers
information in the field.

3.3 Sampling and sample design

Sampling is a technique that identifies a representative
number from a given universe of population so as to predict
a fact, circumstances or results about the universe.
Hence, sample is the smaller portion of the study
population or sub group of the population.
A sample should be adequate and representative of the
population because the objective of sampling is to get
reliable or representative information about the larger study
population
A well selected sample may provide superior results.
Sampling design or strategy refers to the method we use to
select the samples.

3.3.1 Sample Vs population

Sample or units of analysis is the small group of
people from whom a researcher draws out
information about the total population.
Unless distinctions made clearly, population may
refer to either
sample population or study
population/universe
The study population refers to the total population
form which we select the few to sample.
3.3.2 Sample size
Sample size is another important concept that
refers to the number of respondents involved in
the sample survey.

 A prudent choice of the sample size for a particular survey

involves many considerations, which include among
others: resources in manpower, cost per sample unit and
funds available.
At any cost however, a sample should be adequate to draw
conclusions about the population.
Sampling methods are classified into probability and nonprobability .
1. Probability sampling- in this method, each
member of
the population has a known non- zero probability of
being selected.
Probability methods include random, systematic and
stratified sampling.

A. Random sampling- a sampling design is considered

random, if each member in the population has an equal and
known chance of being selected.
Hence, random sample can be defined as a sample where
the probability that any individual member from the
population being selected as part of the sample is exactly
the same as any other individual member of the population.
The prerequisite for a random sample is that each and every
item of the population has to be identified.
Random selection is effective in a clearly defined
population that is relatively small and self-contained.
Random sampling is not a haphazard, arbitrary, but the
opposite.
The reason for using the term is to avoid bias.

B. Systematic sampling- involves selecting elements from a

population list in a systematic rather than random fashion.
The researcher calculates a sampling interval rather than
using a list of random numbers.
The interval serves as quasi-random selection method.
Thus, in a systematic sample, every nth member has a
chance to be included in the sample.
C. Stratified sampling- involves dividing the population into
homogenous groups (sub-groups or strata) each group
containing subjects with similar characteristics.
Example dividing a student population into female and male
then after use random/systematic sampling.

2. Non-probability sampling
It is a type of sampling that does not use probability
theory and it is used when number of elements in a
population is not distinguished or known.
The non-probability samples are drawn based on
judgment regarding the characteristics of the target
population and needs of survey.
In this sampling method, some members of the
eligible target population have a chance of being
chosen and others do not.
Examples of non-random sample include quota,
purposive/judgmental and snowball sampling.

A.
Quota sampling
The researcher divides the population into-sub
groups/categories such as men and women, arts
and commerce, younger and older, etc.
Thus, the number of respondents is fixed in
various categories of the sample.
The selection is influenced by researchers
preference or access to sampling.
Information about the whole population is not
necessarily needed.
B.
Purposive Sampling
The researcher contacts only most relevant
respondent whom he/she thinks are with sampling
characteristics he/she is interested in.

The judgment of the researcher is used in

selecting cases with a specific purpose in mind.
It is usually common in gathering historical facts,
describing phenomena or when the subject of
discussion is not widely known.
C.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as network or
reputational sampling since it used uses
networking to obtain the required information from
those capable individuals.

3.4
Monitoring data collection processes
Data collection involves a series of processes and
hence, needs to be monitored so that desired results
could be achieved out of the research endeavors.
Researchers should monitor the proper use of data
instruments/techniques for the identified sources
and type of information.
Monitoring data collection processes helps to
identify problems in the data collection techniques
and gives opportunity to use others before the entire
time elapses.

IV DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Managing Data: coding and data
entry
The previous chapter has familiarized us with
some of the key techniques of gathering data.
Data should be managed and hence, once the
data have been collected, the next task is to
reduce the mass of data obtained to a form
suitable for analysis.
In this step, researchers are confronted with
many questions, which include:

1.
2.

How can I make sense of all this material?

How can I organize it to make it meaningful to others and
myself?
3. How do I put it all together so as to present a concise and
thoughtful formulation of the topic under study?
Hence, before you start analyzing the data, be clear about:
1. What is the level of measurement of each variable being
used in any particular piece of analysis.
2. How many variables will any particular piece of analysis
require.
3. What type of analysis is required? Is descriptive analysis
required or contextual analysis or nay other.

 Working with the original data collection forms to

analyze the data is insufficient.
Consider the difficulty of going through hundreds of
questionnaires each time you wanted to evaluate the
response to an item.
Hence, data should be coded and entered before
meaningful analysis could be carried out.
Coding represents the operations by which data are
broken down, conceptualized and put back together
in new ways.
A systematic listing of the topics to be covered is
always very essential.
The data should be coded, formatted, processed, and
analyzed in line with the topics.

 Coding and data entry is applicable both to quantitative

and qualitative analysis.
Coding quantitative data- survey data for example
requires that answers are converted into numbers.
Many variables also require that answers be classified
into categories.
Classifying responses- involves the creation of a
classification system that imposes a particular order
on the data.
Classification schemes can be developed either before
a questionnaire/interview schedule is administered or
after.

Much of the work of classifying responses is done

at the questionnaire construction stage where set
of fixed responses are provided to the
respondents.
The process involves assigning a code number to
each
answer
to
a
question
in
the
questionnaire/interview schedule.
If the data are classified and coded, and entered
accordingly, a simple command of computer gives
the tabulations that are anticipated for data
analysis.

Coding qualitative data-

data collected in the field are

not easy to use.

Theoretical coding is an important approach to qualitative
data, which tries to convert the material on the schedules into
suitable code form.
This task is very tedious and demanding.
The method of coding qualitative data is open coding, which
refers to close examination of the data so that phenomena
may be named and categorized.
An observation, a sentence, a paragraph from the interview
transcript is taken apart and given a name which stands for
or represents the phenomena.
We ask questions, like what is this?
What does it represent?

In this process, we make comparisons so that similar

phenomena may be given the same name.
Example, Studying how children are playing.
One child pulls away a toy, grabbing, another hides,
hiding, a third avoiding interaction.
You may ask what grabbing, hiding , and
avoiding represent and come to conclusion that
these are all strategies to avoid sharing a toy.
The coding will be with the latter one rather than with
the first three.
Ways of doing open coding
Line-by-line coding- so that concepts and categories
are freely generated.

Paragraph-wise or in terms of document or case with the aim

of breaking down and understanding a text in order to
generate categories.
The result of open coding should be a list of codes and
categories written along side the text itself, along with code
notes that explain the content of the codes.
Data entry will be done on the basis of codes and categories.
4.2 Data cleaning and identification of gaps
Data cleaning is an important task of a researcher that adds
substantially to the quality of the collected data.
The purpose is to identify and eliminate errors occurred in
the course of data collection.

Data cleaning involves three tasks:

1. Completeness- checking that there is an answer to every
question.
Whenever there is missing, if it could not be crosschecked from other sections, respondents should be
contacted.
2. Accuracy- as much as possible, a check is made that
all questions are answered accurately.
Inaccuracies arise out of carelessness on the part of
either the respondent or the interviewers.
A tick in the wrong box, a ring around wrong code, an
error in simple arithmetic can reduce the validity of the
data unless they are picked up during the cleaning time.

3. Uniformity- checking that interviewers have interpreted

instructions and questions uniformly.
Identification of Data Gaps
Once cleaning is done, a researcher tries to look the data
in a holistic manner.
The focus is not what is missing for each survey/interview
question, but what is missing to answer the research
questions and achieve the stated objectives.
Hence, there is a need for a serious examination of the
whole data.
This enables a researcher to find ways of filling the gaps
before it is too late in relation to the research period.

4.3
Analysis of Qualitative Data
There is a need for dialectic between ideas and qualitative
data.
Because we cannot analyze the qualitative data without
ideas, but our ideas must be shaped and guided by the
data we are analyzing.
You cannot make an omelet without breaking and then
beating together eggs.
Likewise, analysis involves breaking the data down into
bits and beating the bits together.
In this sense, data analysis can be divided into two broad
related activities.
1. Checking and converting the data into formats that is
appropriate for analysis and interpretation.

2. Generating metadata - refers to the contextual

information that a researcher obtains during
processing, for example creating lists of data
giving biographical inputs that would make it
easier to identify transcripts.
The main purpose of such exercise is to make it
easier for the researcher to locate transcripts or
particular items in a data set.
Qualitative data analysis involves description,
classification, and making connections.
1. Description it is the first step in qualitative
analysis in which a researcher develops
descriptions of the phenomena under study.

Description includes information about:

A) the context of an act- situating the action within the
social, cultural and historical background against which
it takes place.
Contexts are key to meaning since meaning is conveyed
correctly only if the context is also understood.
B) intentions and meaning attributed by the actor to the
action - in qualitative analysis there is a strong emphasis
in understanding the
subjective meanings imbued by
actors to the ways in which action is organized.
C)
the process in which the action is embedded- it is
linked to that of change, i.e. the
consequences of the
action.

 2. Classification this involves sorting out our mass of

data into classes based on certain characteristics, which
will then aid us in the development of a conceptual
framework through which actions and events can be
rendered intelligibly.
Classification and categorization should always be guided
by the research objectives.
3. Making Connection- describing and classifying are not
ends in themselves but serve a more important purpose,
viz. to produce an account of our analysis.
The concepts we develop are little building block, which
must be connected together with the mortar of ideas.

We have to look for associations between different

variables and try to see the patterns within the data, so
that we can discern regularities and also variation and
exceptions.
4.4 Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative analysis involves the use of models and
statistics.
Statistical analytical methods may be used in valid
ways or in specious ways.
This depends both on the honesty of the researcher in
selecting the appropriate formula and data inputs and on
his or her understanding of the formula and their
outputs.

There are three chief phases:

Bringing the raw data into measured order
Summarizing the data
Applying analytical methods to manipulate the data so
that their interrelationships and quantitative meaning
become evident.
There are different statistical packages for qualitative
data analysis.
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) is the
most common package.
It is a computer software program that provides access
to a wide range of data management and statistical
analysis

1.
2.
3.

The program can perform a variety of data

analysis
including
tables
and
graphical
presentation.
It is particularly well suited to sample survey
research.
However, it requires knowing/understanding the
basic concepts and techniques of statistical
analysis.

V . WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS

5.1 THE WRITE UP PROCESS
Writing up is the process where the world
is transformed into words.
The world refers to a research landscape
where the researcher spends a lengthy
period of time in observing and interviewing
people.
In this process the researcher sees, feels,
and hears, the object of the study.
Generally, write up is the process in which
the field experiences are transformed into a
text, a report, a monograph, or an article.

However, writing up is not an easy task because

linking up words to form a meaningful whole is a
demanding task.
In many instances, researchers start writing with a
pencil striking it at the paper or put their fingers
on the computer keyboard, waiting for the
formulation of proper sentences.
Unfortunately
however,
at
the
beginning
something meaningful hardly comes.
Usually researchers go to library to read more and
see similar research outputs and keep on
accumulating readings.

 Some may even feel that they have no enough data to

write.
In any case, all of them they keep on postponing the
writing up process and will start to suffer from
tremendous stress.
The only antidote for not writing is to write. We can
always improve what we have written, editing the good
staff and tossing the rest.
Until you have word in front of you to edit, thoughts can
jump around forever in your head in so abstract a form
that they can neither be communicated to others nor
sharpened to your satisfaction.
Writing, like any other workmanship, is an art that you
must practice regularly.

5.1.1 Data Presentation and Interpretation

Data presentation refers to the preparation of a data in a
manner that could be used by the general audience.
Tables, charts and graphs are important means of data
presentation to which most audiences are familiar.
Quite often the most important point that an analyst wants to
make can be more clearly demonstrated by using a chart or
graph than by describing the point verbally.
Tables serve important purpose of generating charts and
graphs.
People may see what is important more quickly by viewing a
picture of it than by receiving the same information in written
form.

 Data interpretation- refers to the process of giving meaning

to the data and spelling out the implications in relation to
the research questions and objectives.
This process involves the real interventions of the
investigator in which he/she draws major generalizations.
The quality and level of contribution to theoretical or
empirical gaps depend on this process.
The author, uses theoretical framework in the process of
interpretation.
However, researchers need to be careful not to make
generalizations that are not supported by the data analysis.

5.1.2 Tracing Back to Objectives, Questions and

Problems
In the course of write up, it is quite advisable that
researchers need to trace back to the research
problems, questions and objectives.
This helps researchers to keep themselves on
track and monitor the progress of the write up.
The data analysis and interpretation may
sometimes indicate that certain adjustment is
unavoidable.
Researchers who fail to look back their problems,
questions and objectives may find themselves
having done an interesting writing up, but does
not live up to the research objectives.

5.1.3 Telling the story Clearly and Making

Good arguments.
Writing up involves story building, which is not an
easy task.
If readers are to accept your claim, they must be
able to follow your argument, and to do that they
must understand the sentences that express it.
Good researchers write short and clear stories
rather than taking readers around the bush.
The principles of telling a story clearly include:

1. Short stories and correct grammars

2. Old information before new
3. Choosing between active and passive
4. Complexity last
MAKING GOOD ARGUMENTS
A researcher have to organize a report to support
a claim that answers his/her research question
and justifies both the time he/she spent answering
it and the time he/she asks readers to spend
reading about it.

The support for that answer and claim takes the

form of a research argument.
Though you should at first organize your materials
around the elements of your argument, your final
draft must reflect not only the structures of your
argument but also the structures of your readers
understanding.
Arguments should be constructed in such a way
that one reinforces the other.
This process of thickening an argument with
other arguments is one way that writers gain the
confidence of readers.

Readers will judge you by how well you manage the

elements of an argument so that you anticipate their
concerns.
In so doing, they are in effect judging the quality of
your mind, even your implied character- an image of
yourself that you project through your argument,
traditionally called your ethos.
When you seem to be the sort of person who
supports your claims thoroughly and who
thoughtfully considers other points of view, you
give readers reason to trust what you say and not
question what you dont.

5.1.4
Claims, Reasons and Evidence
Claim is any sentence that asserts something that may be
true or false and so needs support: Example: the worlds
temperature is rising.
A reason is a sentence supporting a claim.
Evidence is fact, data which a researcher base reason(s).
In a research report, you make claim, back with reasons
based on evidence, acknowledge and respond to other
views, and sometimes explain your principles of reasoning.
Every written argument is built out of the answers for five
questions that the researcher must ask on behalf of his/her
readers.

1.
2.
3.
4.

What do you claim?

What reasons support that claim?
What evidence supports those reasons?
Do you acknowledge this alternative/objection
and how do you respond?
5. What principle (warrant) justifies connecting
your reasons to your claim?
BASING CLAIMS ON REASONS
At the core of every research report is your
claim, the answer to your research question,
along with two kinds of support for it.

The
first support is at least one reason, a
sentence or two explaining why your readers
should accept your claim.
Examples:
1. the emancipation of Russian peasants was an
empty gesture (claim) because it did not improve
the material quality of their daily lives (reason).
2.TV violence can have harmful psychological
effects on children (claim) because those exposed
to lots of it tend to adopt the values of what they
see (reason).

Of course, it should be clear that a reason could be

supported by more reasons,.
Which means reasons can be based on reasons, but
ultimately a reason has to be grounded on evidence.
BASING REASONS ON EVIDENCE
Careful readers ask for evidence, the data, the facts on
which a researcher base reasons.
Evidence is something that a researcher and readers
can see, touch, taste, smell, or hear ( or is accepted by
everyone as just plain fact- the sun rises in the east).
.

Let us look at example 2

TV violence can have harmful psychological effects
on children (claim) because those exposed to lots
of it tend to adopt the values of what they see
(reason).
Their constant exposure to violent images makes
them unable to distinguish fantasy from reality
(another reason).
Ben (2000) found that children ages 5-9 who
watched more than three hours of violent television
a day were 25 percent more likely to say that most
of what they saw on television was really
happening (evidence supporting reasons).

5.1.5 Reliability, Validity and

Triangulation
For a piece of research to be judged as objective,
it has to be both reliable and valid.
Reliability is meant the extent to which a
measurement procedure yields the same answer
whenever it is carried out.
Example, a thermometer should show the same
temperature in a room whenever it is plugged
under the same condition.
It is about consistency, i.e. your research would be
reliable if, when repeated, using the same
methods, it brings the same results.

 In qualitative research, validity specifically refers to the

extent to which the data reflect the thoughts, views,
actions and experiences of the subject in an accurate
manner.
Reliability of the data is the main concern of the scientific
community because if the data are not reliable, the
conclusions reached on their basis will be quite useless.
Working Towards Reliability
A key factor is the quality of recording and documenting
data.
The field notes taken by the researcher must be
documented in such a way that they can be compared and
shared with other fieldworkers and colleagues.

Reliability for interview data can be increased by

training the interviewers and by checking
interview guides in test interviews or after the first
interview.
In the case of observation, training before entering
the field and regularly evaluating what has been
observed can promote the reliability of findings.
In a nutshell, reliability demands that the data are
presented in such a way that the reader can clearly
differentiate the voice of the subject from the
interpretations of the researcher.

Validity-is the extent to which a measurement

gives the correct answer.
It refers to the accuracy of the data by the
research instrument, whether it is an interview or
questionnaire or some other means of research.
Validity has internal and external dimensions.
Internal validity involves asking questions like:
Have the methods that I used color the results of my
research?
Were there other factors that came in the way?

External validity of a research is about answering

the questions:
How valid is ones conception of the situation?
How generalizable are ones results?
We can say safely that the concept of validity
refers to the extent to which our data provide the
true measurement of social reality.
For example, you have collected data about power
shortage in a town and you want to compare with
government statistics, which are reliable.

 However, the governments definition of power shortage

and your research definition may not be the same.
If this is the case, is your comparison valid?
It is not, because the comparison is not between two
things alike.
Ways of bringing validity in a research process
1. Refrain from talking.
When you are in the field, listen as much as possible.
2. Produce field-notes that are as exact as possible.
3. Begin to write early, so that you will not forget the little
detail that separate good research from the ordinary.

4. Write in such a way that your readers can see for

themselves the points you are trying to bring out.
In other words, provide enough data to enable readers to
draw out their own inferences and follow the ones that you
are making .
5. Your report should be as complete as possible.
6. Seek feedback on your findings and presentations from
your colleagues.
7.Your presentation should be characterized by a balance
between the various aspects you have studied rather than
leaning too heavily on one or the other aspect.
8.Your presentation should display accuracy in writing

 Triangulation- refers to the use of multiple methods for

assessing the validity of your research data.
It enables you to combine different methods and obtain a
better picture of the subject of your research.
The aim of
triangulation is to obtain accuracy in
measurement between two points for which you require a
way of measuring that is realizable.
The theory of triangulation provides us in social research
some degree of control over the accuracy of data we
gather.
There are two types of triangulation: methodological and
theoretical triangulations.

 Methodological triangulation- refers to:

One researcher uses two or more research methods.
Two or more researchers use the same research method.
Purpose of methodological triangulation:
1. To gather different types of information, for example, qualitative
and quantitative.
2. Two or more researchers use the same method and then compare
their results to find out if they agree that they have similar findings.
3. To check that material collected in one form is both realizable and
valid
Theoretical Triangulation- this form of triangulation is not popular,
but not impossible.
It tries to look at the subject of a study from different theoretical
point of view.

5.2 Contents of a Research Report

A research report generally has three major sections
viz. introduction, body and conclusion.
1. Introduction- once the researcher has produced
revised chapters, s/he should revise her/his working
introduction so that readers know where you will
take them and why they should go there.
Grab their attention with something snappy or cute.
What grabs readers is a problem they think is in
need of a solution, and what hold them is the hope
that you have found it.
Introduction may differ based on the topics and
problems posed in different fields as well as their
intended readers.

 However, they have shared rhetorical pattern that readers

look for in all introductions, regardless of field.
The common structure consists of three elements
A. Contextualizing background
Contextualization of information is called common ground,
because it establishes a shared understanding between
reader and writer about the general issue the writer will
address. It is a stable context.
B. A statement of the problem
Once a writer establishes common ground, s/he can disrupt it
with a problem.
The statement of the problem should be brief that focuses on
some conditions of incomplete knowledge or understanding
and the consequences of not knowing or understanding.

C. A response to the problem.

Once the writer disrupts the readers stable context with a
problem, they will expect the writer to solve it, either by
explicitly stating the gist of the solution or by implicitly
promising them that s/he will do so.
An example of an introduction with a gist of solution (main
point)
As we have investigated environmental threats, our
understanding of many chemical processes such as acid rain
and the buildup of carbon dioxide has improved, allowing us
to understand better their eventual effects on the biosphere.
But recently the chemical processes that have been thinning
the ozone layer have been found to be less well understood
than one thought (so what?).
We may have labeled hydrofluorocarbons as the chief cause
incorrectly.We have found the bonding of carbon .

An example of an introduction with a promise of

solution.
As we have investigated environmental threats, our
understanding has improved, allowing us to understand
better their eventual effects on the biosphere.
But recently the chemical processes that have been
thinning the ozone layer [ have proved to be ] less well
understood (so what?).
We may have labeled hydrofluorocarbons as the chief cause
incorrectly. (well, what have you found?)
In this report, we describe a hitherto unexpected chemical
bonding between.
This introduction provides as a sentence that promises a
solution to come.
Not every introduction has all the three, but most do.

The introduction may briefly outline the structure of

the research report.
2. The body of a research report
The body of a research report consists of design
section, theoretical framework & literature review and
most important the empirical chapters.
The depth and character of these elements of the
body differ from researcher to researcher.
3. Conclusion
Not every research paper has a section formally
called conclusion, but they all have a paragraph or
two that serves as one.
Important issues in writing a conclusion:

1. Start with your main report- if you end your

introduction with your main report, state it again at
the beginning of your conclusion, but state in
more fully. Dont simply repeat it.
2. Add a new significance or application- once you
state your claim, say why it is significant:
paraphrase the consequences of your problem or
point to a new significance not mentioned in your
introduction.
This new significance should be another answer
to the question: So what? in the introduction.

3.
Add a Call for More Research
Just as you can survey research already done in
your common ground, you can also call for more
research still to do at the end of your conclusion.

5.3 Styles, Citation and Documentation

All source materials, primary or secondary,
(published or unpublished) must be credited and
correctly cited.
Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism.
All citations should include a reference in the
body of the text to the author as well as an entry in
the bibliography.

No matter how styles may vary between Oxford,

Cambridge, American Psychological Association
(APA), all citations should include a reference in
the body of the text to the author as well as an
entry in the bibliography.
An important issue in citation is to consistently
use a single citation style.

5.3.1Quotation and Paraphrase

Quotation involves taking the precise wording of
the author in a sentence or paragraph.

In such cases the researcher needs to put the

sentence or paragraph in a quotation mark ( ) and
as well s/he is required to cite the source, which
includes the name of the author, the date of
publication and the page number.
Note: the quoted sentence should be linked with
the previous or next issue in the text.
Example: Helmsing (2001:4) explained that
decentralization has ceased to be a local
government affair and has turned into a local
governance issue.
Whenever the sentence is more than five lines, it
should be indented.

 Example: According to Litvack et al. (1998:1), in the Third World

countries, the change and the emphasis on decentralization in
the current context is derived from different factors that
include:
the advent of multi-party political systems in Africa; the
deepening of democratization in Latin America; the
transition from a command to a market economy in Eastern
Europe and the former Soviet Union; the need to improve
delivery of local services to large populations in the
centralized countries of East Asia; the challenge of ethnic
and geographic diversity in South Asia, as well as ethnic
tensions in other countries[] and the attempt to keep
centrifugal forces at bay by forging asymmetrical
federations; and the plain and simple reality that central
governments have often failed to provide effective public
services.

 Where a quotation has been changed or words are added, it

should be indicated as follows:
1.[] it is clear that according to the current understanding of governance,
government is one among many societal players or actors that are concerned
with public issues.

This indicates omitted parts before the sentence included in

the quotation.
2.Development is [] a cumulative process.
This indicates that something has been omitted in between.
3. The change should be very well felt by [ the community ] and
local officials.
This shows that the community is the authors own insertion.
Sentence that is quoted from secondary source, which was
quoted by another author should be indicated by stating as
quoted by Alex (2006:43)

Paraphrasing- sources
may
be
paraphrased where exact wording is not
essential.
This means the researcher is adopting the
view pints of the author.
Care should be taken however, not to
change the original meaning through
paraphrase, and all paraphrased sources
must be fully cited.
Example: Traditionally, political scientists have used
governance to express the nature of the relationships between
the RULES, RULERS, and the RULED (Olowu, 1999, 2002a).

 Citing within the paper/chapter

Single author: example Gorge Smith 1999 should be cited
as (Smith, 1999)
Two authors: example Mathew White and Fresew Belay
2004 should be cited as (White and Fresew, 2004).
The same is true for three authors.
If it is more than three authors, use et al.
Example, (Jackson et al.,2003)
5.3.2 Bibliography
Bibliography is a complete documentation of the source
materials used in the research.
The documentation system is not the same for all types of
source materials.

Bibliography/Reference citation
A. Book with a Single Author
Fleming, T. (1997) Liberty!: The American Revolution. New York: Viking.
Important Elements: Author, date of publication, title of the book,
place of publication, publisher.
B. Book with two or three Authors
Schwartz, D., S. Ryan & F. Wostbrock (1995) The Encyclopedia of TV
game shows. New York: Facts on File.
C. Book with more than three authors
Azfar, O. et al. (1999) Decentralization, Governance and Public Services:
the Impact of Institutional Arrangements: A Review of Literature. IRIS
Centre:
Maryland University Press.
D. Article within a Book
Adhana H. (1994) Mutation of Statehood and Contemporary Politics, in
Abebe Z. and S. Pausewang (eds.) Ethiopia in Change: Peasantry,
Nationalism and Democracy, pp. 12-29. London: British Academic
Press.

Important Elements: Author of the article, date of

publication, title of the article, editor(s) of the
book, title of the book, page numbers of the
article, place of publication, and publisher.
E.Articles from a Printed Journal
Abbink, J. (1997) Ethnicity and Constitutionalism in
Contemporary Ethiopia, Journal of African Law
41(2): 159-174.
Important Elements:
Author of the article, date
of publication, title of the article, title of journal,
volume and issue number of the journal, page
numbers of the article.

G. Article from a Printed Newspaper

Holden, S. (1998, May 16) Frank Sinatra dies at 82:
Matchless stylist of pop. The New York Times, pp.
A1, A22-A23.
Important Elements: Author of article, date of
publication, title of article, name of newspaper,
section, page location of article.
H. Website sources
Brosio, G. (2000) Decentralization in Africa.
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/seminar/2000/fi
scal/brosio.pdf (accessed 24/10/2007)