Modern Society and Globa

l Language
(Chapter 2)
Instructor: Professor Yong-Won Lee
Department of English Language and Literature
Seoul National University
Office: Building 3, Room 316
Email: ylee01@snu.ac.kr
Phone: 02-880-2536

Fall 2015
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WHY English?
The Historical Contexts
Why is English the Global Language?
- Two Answers: (a) Geographical-Historical one (Chapter 2);
(b) Socio-Cultural one (Chapters 3 & 4);
- Combination of (a) & (b) resulted in Many Varieties of English
(Chapter 5).

Historical Account: Traces the movement of English around t

he world; - The 19th-century colonial developments; - Adoption as an (or
a semi)-official language of newly independent states in mid 20th centur
y; - Spread of representation in every continent and islands in three maj
or Oceans.

Socio-Cultural Account: - Looks at the way people have co

me to depend on English for their economic and social well-being; P
enetration into the international domains of political life, business, s
afety, communications, entertainment, and the media & education;
Several domains total dependence on English computer software i
ndustry.

Overview: Historical Context

Origin (UK)
America
Canada
The Caribbean
Australia & New Zealand
South Asia
Former Colonial Africa
South Africa

South East Asia & The South Pacific

A world view

Origin (UK)

Origin
Movement of Anglo-Saxons in 5th Century:
- Northern Europe to England (Strongholds of the Celtic languages);
- Entered Part of Wales, Cornwall, Cumbria, and southern Scotland.

Norman Invasion in 1066: Many nobles fled to Scotland and

were welc

omed (along with the English language).

Expansion into Ireland, beginning in 12th Century:

- Anglo-Norman nights were sent across the Irish Sea;
- Ireland fell under English rule.

The First Significant Step in the End of 16th Century:

- Colonial Expansions into North America and further developments
- Between the Elisabeth I and II period (1603-1952);
- 5-7 million => 250 million speakers of English.
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America

America
Early English-Speaking Settlements in America
- The First Expedition (1584): Commissioned by Walter Raleigh (1584);
A group of explorers established a small settlement near Roanoke Island (North
Carolina); Conflicts with the native people; Disappearance of settlement.
- The Second Expedition (1607): The first permanent settlement built in the
Chesapeake Bay area; Called the settlement Jamestown and the area Virginia.
- The Third Expedition (1620): The first group of puritans on Mayflower landed
at Cape Cod Bay and established a settlement at Plymouth, Massachusetts; The
near area called New England.

Different Linguistic Backgrounds of Settlers:

- Virginia: Most of settlers from West County (Somerset, Gloucestershire);
Zummerzet voicing of s sounds & r pronounced strongly after vowels;
Tidewater accents in Tangier Island.
- New England: Settlers from Eastern counties of England (Lincolnshire,
Nottinghamshire, Essex, Kent, and London) and Midlands:
Not pronouncing r after vowels.
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America

America
Dialectal Distinctions in American English
- Originated from early patterns of settlements and migration routes.
- Northern (New England): Moved west into the Great Lakes area.
- Southern (Virginia): Moved along the Gulf coasts into Texas
- Midland: Spread throughout the mid-western area, across the
Mississippi into California.

Additional Waves of Immigration:

- The 17th Century: New shiploads of immigrants; Pennsylvania
settled mainly by Quakers from the Midlands and the North of England;
- The 18th Century: A vast wave of immigration from northern
Ireland; 50,00 Irish and Scots-Irish in 1720; Scots-Irish - One sevenths of
colonial population by 1776 ; Seen as frontier people with the broad accent;
Some stayed in Philadelphia and others moved inland to the west and the
South in search for land.
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America
Population Increase between 1770-1870: 4 millions (the first censu
s) to 50 millions; Settlers spread throughout the continent; The broad acc
ent was heard all over the Sunbelt (from Virginia to southern California); It is
closely associated with present-day American speech.

Non-English influence on the English language

- The Spanish: occupied large parts of the west and south-west;
- The French: the northern territories, around St. Lawrence River
and throughout the middle region (French Louisiana) as far as the
Gulf of Mexico;
- The Dutch: in New York (originally New Amsterdam) and the
surrounding area;
- The German: Settling in Pennsylvania and hinterland.
- Africans: Slave trade; from 2, 500 in 1700 to 100, 000 by 1775.
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America
The 19th Century: A massive increase in American migration;
- Irish following potato famine in 1840s;
- Germans and Italians escaping from the failed 1848 revolutions;
- Central European Jews fleeing from the pogroms of the 1880s;

The 20th Century: 75 millions (1900) to about 150 millions (1950); about 50 m
illions; Settlers spread throughout the continent; The broad accent was heard a
ll over the Sunbelt (from Virginia to southern California); It is closely associated w
ith present-day American speech.

Functions of the English Language in America

- English language as a Glue: Within one or two generations of arrival, most im
migrants came to speak English through assimilation; A massive increase of mot
her-tongue speakers of English (198 m. in 1990 to 215 m. in 2000) ; Maintainin
g American unity;
- Minority groups concerns: preservation of their cultural & linguistic heritage; T
he seeds of conflicts between the need for intelligibility and the need for identit
y.
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Canada

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Canada
The First English Language Contact with Canada (1497): John Cabot reached Ne
wfoundland; Later, the farming, fishing, fur trade industries attracted English speaki
ng settlers.

The Ongoing Conflicts with the French: Exploration of Jacque Cartier in 1520s; Fr
ench claims surrendered following the defeats in Queen Annes War (1702-13) and
the French and Indian War (1754-63); Thousands of French settlers deported from
Arcadia (Nova Scotia) and replaced by settlers from New England; More came direc
tly from England, Ireland, and Scotland; Nova Scotia meaning New Scotland.
The US declaration of Independence (1776): Royal supporters of Great Britain left
US for Canada; Nova Scotia to New Brunswick and further inland; Soon followed by
thousands of late Royalists; Over 31 millions people in 2001, with two thirds claim
ing English as a native language.

Canadian English: Some common characteristics both with American and British
English; The presence of French as co-official language, chiefly spoken in Quebec.

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The Caribbean

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The Caribbean
Importation of African slaves (started as early as 1517): Resulted in a highly distin
ctive kind of speech spoken in West Indies and the southern part of the mainland.

Atlantic Triangle of Journeys (early 17c to 1865): Europe West African Coast
Caribbean islands & American coast Europe; The 20 slaves on a Dutch ship arrived
in Virginia in 1619; Half a million by 1776; 4 millions by 1865.

Emergence of English Pidgins and Creoles: Linguistic policy of slave traders was to
mix people of different language backgrounds in a ship; Growth of pidgin forms of co
mmunication among slaves and between the slaves and English-speak sailors; The pidgi
n was learned by the children of the slaves as a mother tongue (appearance of black Cr
eole speech).

A Diverse Range of Varieties of English Developed in the Region: Standard Britis

h English promoted as a prestige variety of English; Creole forms of French, Spanish, an
d Portuguese developing; Interaction among the creole and standard variety of English.

Migration of West Indian Speech Communities into Canada, the USA, and Brit
ain.
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Australia & New Zealand

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Australia & New Zealand

Australia
James Cooks First Visit to Australia in 1770
First Penal Colony at Sydney (1788)
- About 130,000 prisoners transported in a half century ( 1788-1838);
- Most of the convicts from London and Ireland (the 1798 Irish Rebellion).

Free settlers
- Entered the country from the very beginning
- Rapid increase from mid-19th century: 400,000 (1850) => 4 millions (1900) =>
19 millions (2002)

Mixed linguistic character Displayed in Australian English

- Cockney accents of London;
- The brogue of Irish English;
- Aboriginal languages;
- Influence from American English;
- Various Immigrant groups.
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Australia & New Zealand

New Zealand (Called Aotearoa in Maori)
The Chartering of Islands by Captain Cook in 1769-1770.
First Settlements by European Whalers and Traders in 1790s.
Christian Missionary Work Started in 1814
The Official Colony Established in 1840 (The Treaty of Waitangi)
Rapid increase in European Migration: 2,000 (1840) => 25,000 (1850) => 750,000 (19
00) => 3.8 millions in 2002.

Linguistic Consequences of Three Strands of Social History:

- A greater sympathy for British values and institutions => Clearer British accents;
- A growing sense of national identity, separate from Australia => Use of distinctive
New Zealand vocabulary.
- A fresh concern for the rights and needs of the Maori people => Increased used of
Maori words in New Zealand English.

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South Africa

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South Africa
Arrival of Dutch Colonists in the Cape as early as 1652.
History of British Advancement
- Invasion of British expeditionary force in 1795; Establishment of British
control in 1806; Settlement began in 1820.
- English adopted as the official language in 1820; became the language
of law, education, and various aspects of public life.
- Further settlements in 1840s and 1850s in Natal; Massive influx of
Europeans after the development of gold and diamond mines in
Witwatersrand.

Formation of South African English

- Introduction of British regional dialects Speech of the London area in
the Cape; Midland and northern British accents in Natal;
- Emergence of homogeneous African accent shares many similarities
with those of Australia
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South Africa
Influence of other languages
- English used as a second language by Afrikaans speakers
- Dutch colonists flight to the northern area (Great Trek of 1836);
- An African variety of English developed in mission schools;
- Immigrants from India around 1860.
Contemporary Situations in South Africa
- White authorities: English as an important means of international
communication;
- Afrikaners: are becoming increasingly bilingual (Afrikaans + English);
- A continuum of English accents (from African varieties to British RP).
The 1993 Constitution
- Designates 11 languages as official (English, Afrikaans,);
- The difficulty of administering the multilingual policy is immense;
- English continues to be an important lingua franca, the preferred
language of education and parliament.

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South Asia

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South Asia
Estimates of English speakers in South Asian Continents
- Traditional view: 3-5% of total population (30-50 millions); Recent surveys: about 20 % or o
ne third of the population; In real terms, 30 to 330 millions of English speakers.

South East Asian English

- Refers to several varieties of English developed in the Region (India, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan)

Origin of South East Asian English

- British East India Company in 1600: Establishment of trading stations in Surat, Madras, Bom
bay, and Calcutta; Overcame competition from other countries; took over the revenue mana
gement of Bengal; Board of control in 1784; Abolishment of the company in 1858;
- Period of British Sovereignty (the Raj, 1765-1847): English gradually became the medium of
administration and education; A recognized turning point - Lord William Bentincks acceptan
ce of a Minute written by Thomas Macaulay in 1835 (Introduction of English educational syst
em); Establishment of universities in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras in 1857.

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South Asia
Contemporary Situations in India
- A three language formula in 1968: Children in Hindi-speaking regions are
taught Hindi, English, and another modern Indian language; those in nonHindi-speaking regions, Hindi, English, and the regional language.
- Hindi as an official language and English as an associate official language;
- English recognized as the official languages of the four states (Manipur,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura) and eight union territories.

Northern states, Southern India, Pakistan

- English continues to be used within the legal system, government
administrations, secondary and higher education, the armed forces, the
media, business, and tourism;
- Dravidian speaking areas: English is preferred to Hindi as a lingua franca;
- Pakistan and other areas: English is an associated official language, but has no
official status in other countries; the medium of international communication
and the language of cultural modernity throughout the region.
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Former Colonial Africa:

West Africa

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Former Colonial Africa:

West Africa

Partitioning of West Africa: Colonial ambitions of European powers resulted in divisi

on of West Africa into colonial territories by 1915.
Re-partitioning of the regions after two WWs: Confiscation of German and Italian t
erritories.
Independence in or after 1960s: Organization of African Unity pledged to maintain
existing boundaries.

Origin of West African Varieties of English: English visit to the region at the end of
15c; Use of English in some coastal settlements; By the beginning of 19c, English ha
d been brought to the whole region due to the increase in commerce and anti-slave
ry activities

Rise of English-based pidgins and creoles: These were used along with standard vari
eties of colonial officials, missionaries, soldiers, and traders.

British varieties in 5 countries and American Influence in one country:

Sierra Leone, Ghana, Gambia, Nigeria, Cameroon, Liberia
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Former Colonial Africa:

West Africa

Sierra Leone: Started out as a settlement for free slaves in 1960s; Arrival of t
he first groups of slaves from England, Nova Scotia, and Jamaica; Became a C
rown Colony in 1808 and used as a base for anti-slavery-training squadrons
(60,000 brought home); The chief form of communication Krio (English-bas
ed creole); Hinterland became English protectorate in 1896; Gained independ
ence in 1961; .Growth populations to 5.4 million by 2002.

Ghana (Gold Coast): Declared a Crown Colony in 1874 after a successful ex

pedition against the Ashanti; The modern state , Ghana, created by merging
Gold Coast & Togoland in 1957 and gained independence subsequently; Pop
ulation growth to 19 million in 2002, about 1.5 million use English as an L2.

Gambia: English trading along the Gambia River from the early 17 th C.; A peri
od of conflict with France followed by establishment of a British anti-slavery b
ase in Bathurst (Banjul); The capital became a Crown Colony in 1843; Became
an independent member of Commonwealth in 1965 and republic in 1970; Po
pulation grew to 1.4 million in 2002; Krio widely used as a lingua franca.
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Former Colonial Africa:

West Africa

Nigeria: A British colony founded at Lagos in 1861 after a period of British ex

ploration of the interior; A single country (Lagos + southern & northern territo
ries) formed in 1914; Gained independence in 1960; the most multilingual co
untry in Africa (with 500 languages identified in 1990s); Population in 2002 126 million; Half of them use pidgin or creole English as a L2.

Cameroon: Became a German protectorate in 1884; Division of land between

France and Britain in 1919; Merging of the two areas as a single country in 19
72 (with both French and English used as official languages); A multilingual re
gion in which contact languages flourished; Population in 2002 16 million; H
alf of them speak Cameroon Pidgin.

Liberia: Africas oldest republic founded in 1822; Created as a homeland for f

ormer slaves through the activities of American Colonization Society ; Within 5
0 years, 1,3000 black Americans & 6, 000 recaptured at sea settled down; Bec
ame a republic in 1847, with the constitution based on that of the US.; Retain
ed its independence throughout 19 th C.; Population in 2002 - 3.2 million; Mos
t of them use pidgin English (links with American English).
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Colonial Partitioning of Africa (1914)

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Former Colonial Africa:

East and Southern Africa

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Former Colonial Africa:

East and Southern Africa

Initial Contacts: Visits of English ships starting from the end 16th C.; Systematic interest
s began, with expeditions of the interior (R. Burton, D. Livingstone, & J. Speke).

Establishment of British Protectorates: Establishment of British East Africa Compa

ny in 1888 followed by the creation of a series of colonial protectorates; Competiti
on for territorial control among European nations.

English as an Official Language Status in Nine Modern States Associated with Brita
in: Botswana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia,
Zimbabwe; British English used in governments, the courts, schools, the media,
and other public domain in these countries; English used as a medium of international
communication elsewhere (Rwanda, Ethiopia, and Somalia).

The Major Difference between East and West African Varieties of English
- Large number of British immigrants settled down; A class of expatriates and
African-born whites (farmers, doctors, university lecturers);
- British English brought by missionaries reinforced by a British educational systems;
- Mother-tongue varieties of East African English share more similarities with South
African and Australian varieties of English.
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Former Colonial Africa:

East and Southern Africa

Botswana: Southern part of the country became part of a Cape Colony in 18

95; the northern part becoming Bechuanaland; Received independence in 196
6; Population in 2002 1.5 million; English used as the official language .
Kenya: Became a British colony from 1920; gained independence in 1963 aft
er a decade of unrest (Mau Mau rebellion); English adopted as the official lang
uage, with Swahili made a national language in 1974; Population in 2002 31
million.
Lesotho: Started as a Basutoland under British protection in 1869; Gained ind
ependence in 1960; Population in 2002 2.2 million; English is the official lan
guage.
Malawi (Nyasaland): Became a British colony in 1907; Received independenc
e in 1964; Population in 2002 10.5 million; English is a joint official language
with Chewa.
Namibia: Became a German protectorate in 1884; Mandated to South Africa
by the League in 1920 and was later annexed to it (South-West Africa); The U
N assumed direct responsibility in 1966 (known as Namibia); gained its full ind
ependence in 1990; Population 1.8 million; English is the official language.
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Former Colonial Africa:

East and Southern Africa

Tanzania (Zanzibar or Tanganyika): Became a British protectorate in 1890; Britain receive

d a mandate for Tanganyika in 1919; Gained independence in 1961; Population in 2002
- 36 million; English was a joint official language with Swahili until 1967, then lost its na
tional language status; Remains to be an important medium of communication.

Uganda: The Uganda kingdoms united as a British protectorate between 1893 and 190
3; Gained independence in 1962; Population in 2002 24 million; English is the sole offi
cial language, with Swahili widely used as a lingua Franca.

Zambia (Northern Rhodesia): Administered by the British South Africa Company; Becam
e a British protectorate in 1924; Received its independence in 1964; Population in 200211 million; English is the official language.

Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia): Administered by the British South Africa Company; Bec
ame a British colony in 1923; Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) by the white
-dominated government in 1965; Eventual power transfer to African majority; Gained in
dependence in 1980; Population in 2002 11 million; English is the official language.

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South-east Asia and

the South Pacific

34

South-east Asia and

the South Pacific
A Interesting Mixture of American and British English in the Region.
Beginning and Expansion of American Presence
Spanish-American War in 1898; US received Guam & Puerto Rico and
sovereignty over the Philippines; Hawaii annexed; US invasion of
Japanese-held Pacific islands during WWII, with some these
becoming US-responsible UN Trust Territories;

The Philippines: gained independence in 1946; the largest English

speaking population in the region; Population in 2002 80 million; the
influence of American English remains strong.

British Influence: - The journeys of Captain Cook in 1770s; the dispatch of

London Missionary Society workers to the south Pacific islands 50 years
later; Work of Stamford Raffles of British East India Company; Centers
established in Penang (1786), Singapore (1819), and Malacca (1824); The
Federated Malay states became a Crown Colony in 1867; English
established as a medium of law and administration in the region (e.g.,
The Straits Times started in 1845).
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South-east Asia and

the South Pacific

Emergence of English as the language of power in British territories

- Hong Kong islands ceded to Britain in 1842 (Treaty of Nanking);
- Kowloon added in 1860; New Territories leased in 1898 for 99 years;
- Several territories became British protectorates at the end of 19 th C. and
become independent in recent decades (American Samoa, Palau, Fiji,
Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, North Marina
Islands, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu).

Introduction of British educational systems

- Exposed learners to standard British English;
- English medium schools began in Penang in 1816; Senior teaching staff
routinely brought in from Britain; English rapidly became the language of
professional advancement and the chief literary language;
- Higher education through the medium of English introduced at the turn of
the century; English became a prestige lingua franca .
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South-east Asia and

the South Pacific
Singapore: Introduction of a bilingual educational system in 1950s; English along with Chin
ese, Malay, and Tamil; English remained the language of government, law, education, and t
he media; English use steadily increasing among the general population; Population in 2002
4.3 million; Widespread use of Singlish in family settings.
Malaysia: Gained independence in 1957; Bahasa Malaysia adopted as the national languag
e, with the role of English restricted; Malay-medium education introduced, with English incr
easingly seen as of value for international rather than intra-national communication; More a
foreign than a second language; Population in 2002 22 million.
Hong Kong: English and Chinese (Cantonese) have joint official status; Limited use of Englis
h, associated with government, military, law, business, and the media; Cantonese is the mo
ther-tongue of over 98 percent of population (7 million); A quarter of the population with s
ome competence in English; Uncertain future for English after the 1997 transfer to China.
Papua New Guinea: Visit of British sailors as early as 1793; Britain and Germany annexed th
e areas in 1884; British New Guinea transferred to Australia in 1904, with German New Gui
nea mandated to Australia in 1921; Two areas merged after WWII and gained independenc
e in 1975; Population in 2002 5 million; Half of them speak Tok Pisin, an English based pi
dgin as an L2 or L1.
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