Ethics

Method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to

act and for analyzing complex problems and issues.

Basic Ethical Principles in

Human Research
The Belmont Report (1974) summarizes three basic
ethical principles relevant to research involving human
subjects.
Respect for persons
Beneficence
Justice

Codes and Policies for Research Ethics

Honesty
Objectivity
Integrity
Carefulness
Openness
Respect for Intellectual Property

continue
Confidentiality
Responsible Publication
Responsible Mentoring
Respect for colleagues
Social Responsibility

Five principles for research

ethics
Discuss intellectual property frankly
Be conscious of multiple roles
Follow informed-consent rules
Respect confidentiality and privacy
Tap into ethics resources

Paraphrasing
A paraphrase typically explains or clarifies the
text that is being paraphrased or express the meaning
of something.

Eight Paraphrase Pitfalls

1.

Misreading the original

2. Including too much of the original

3. Leaving out important information
4. Adding your opinion
5. Summarizing rather than paraphrasing
6. Substituting inappropriate synonyms
7. Expanding or narrowing the meaning
8. Forgetting to document

Criteria of Good Research

The

aim of the research should be clearly mentioned, along with

the use of common concepts.

The methods used during the analysis should be appropriate.

The reliability and validity of the concerned data should be
checked carefully.
The data analysis should be adequate to reveal its significance.
The conclusions are needed to be confined or limited to only
those data, which are justified and adequately provided by the
research.

Research paradigms
Most quantitative research texts identify three primary types of
research:
Exploratory research on a concept, people, or situation that
the researcher knows little about.
Descriptive research on a concept, people, or situation that
the researcher knows something about, but just wants to
describe what he/she has found or observed.
Explanatory involves testing a hypothesis and deriving that
hypothesis from available theories.

Continue
Generally these types of studies fit within our understanding
of qualitative and quantitative research
Exploratory
research
involves
qualitative
(observation, interviews, and content analysis)
Explanatory research
hypothesis testing.

studies

involves quantitative studies and

Descriptive studies most often involve quantitative research

techniques or a combination of qualitative and quantitative
method

Types of Research
Qualitative Paradigms
Quantitative paradigms
Single subject paradigms

Qualitative paradigms
Qualitative research is an inquiry
process
of
understanding
based
on
methodological traditions of inquiry that explore
a social or human problem. The researcher
analyzes words, reports detailed views of
informants, and conducts the study in a natural
setting.

Quantitative paradigms
Quantitative research is a formal, objective, systematic
process in which numerical data are used to obtain
information about the world. This research method is
used:
To describe variables;
To examine relationships among variables;
To determine cause-and-effect interactions between
variables.'

Single subject paradigm

Single-subject design or single-case research design is
a research design most often used in applied fields of
psychology, education, and human behavior.

Assumptions of qualitative &

Quantitative
paradigm
Ontological assumption
Epistemological assumption
Axiological assumption
Methodological assumption
Rhetorical assumption

Ontological assumption qualitative

Realities are constructed by the social actors. These
realities are relative in that no reality is considered more
true than any other; they may be more or less well
informed within the context of the social actors lives.
Ontological assumption Quantitative:
There is only one reality. Researcher discover the cause
effect relations behind social reality. At the least, we can
find meaningful indicators of what is really happening.

Epistemological assumption Qualitative

The researcher interacts with the object of research and
can affect that object. Findings are created through
interaction between researcher and researched.
Epistemological assumption Quantitative:
The investigator and the object of investigation are
independent from each other and the object can be
researched without being influenced by the researcher.

Axiological assumption Qualitative

Values have a privileged position. Often, there is a
value-bound purpose to the research.
Axiological assumption Quantitative:
Values are excluded from the research process. They
are considered confounding variables-phenomena that
cloud our view of reality.

Methodological assumption Qualitative

The meanings of the social actors can only be discovered through
close interaction between the researcher and respondents. The aim is
to work toward a construction of the social milieu that is consistent
with the experiences of the participants. Methods include long term
observations, in depth interviews and content analysis of documents.
Methodological assumption Quantitative:
The most prevalent methods used include experiments and other
hypothesis-testing
techniques.
Meaningful
phenomena
are
operationalized by determining variables that can be accurately
measured.

Rhetorical assumption Qualitative

The research is often written in the first person,
indicating an involved, even passionate investigator.
Possibly, an appeal is made for action to correct a
social ill.
Rhetorical assumption Quantitative:
The research is written from the perspective of the
disinterested scientist. Typically, our report is couched
in mathematical terms.