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Chapter Ten
Dr Nek Kamal Yeop Yunus
Faculty of Business & Economics
Sultan Idris Education University
Descriptive Statistics
Chapter Ten
2)
Frequency Polygons
Places data in some sort of order
A frequency distribution lists scores from high
to low (Table 10.1)
This results in a grouped frequency
distribution (Table 10.2)
Since the information is not very visual, a
graphical display called a frequency polygon
can help with this (Figure 10.1)
Frequency polygons can be negatively or positively
skewed (Figure 10.2)
They can be useful in comparing two or more
groups
Frequency
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
4
3
5
5
5
5
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
n = 50
Technically, the table should include all scores, including those for which there
are zero frequencies. We have eliminated those to simplify the presentation.
Frequency
64
63
61
59
56
52
51
38
36
34
31
29
27
25
24
21
17
15
6
3
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
4
3
5
5
5
5
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
n = 50
Frequency
1
1
2
1
5
7
5
3
7
10
3
2
1
1
1
n = 50
Variability
Refers to the extent to which the scores on a
quantitative variable in a distribution are spread
out.
The range represents the difference between the
highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
A five number summary reports the lowest, the
first quartile, the median, the third quartile, and
highest score.
Five number summaries are often portrayed
graphically by the use of box plots.
Standard Deviation
Considered the most useful index of variability.
It is a single number that represents the spread
of a distribution.
See p. 348 to calculate the mean of the
distribution.
Table 10.5 will illustrate the calculation of the SD
of a distribution.
If a distribution is normal, then the mean plus or
minus 3 SD will encompass about 99% of all
scores in the distribution.
Mean
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
XX
31
26
16
6
1
-4
-9
-14
-24
-29
(X X)
961
676
256
36
1
16
81
196
576
841
(X X)
Variance (SD ) =
n
2
3640
= 364a
10
(X X)
n
Standard Scores
Standard scores use a common scale to indicate how
an individual compares to other individuals in a group.
The simplest form of a standard score is a Z score.
A Z score expresses how far a raw score is from the
mean in standard deviation units. (see Figure 10.13)
Standard scores provide a better basis for comparing
performance on different measures than do raw scores.
A Probability is a percent stated in decimal form and
refers to the likelihood of an event occurring.
T scores are z scores expressed in a different form (z
score x 10 + 50).
Correlation
Researchers seek to determine whether a
relationship exists between two or more
quantitative variables.
A Scatterplot is a pictorial representation of the
relationship between two quantitative variables.
(see Figure 10.15)
Outliers are scores that deviate or fall
considerably outside most of the other scores in a
distribution or pattern.
They indicate an unusual exception to a general
pattern (See Figure 10.16)
50
Percentage
of Total (%)
30
20
16
12
10
8
4
100
Any questions?
Thank You